Papaya Seed Oil Extraction: Systematic Solvent Selection & HSP Screening

Papaya seeds are an underutilized agricultural by-product that can provide a source of papaya seed oil (PSO), but efficient extraction depends strongly on solvent selection. Conventional solvent selection often relies on empirical testing, making the process time-consuming and costly when many solvents are considered. The reviewed study develops a systematic screening framework that evaluates 50 solvents using Hansen Solubility Parameters (HSPs), boiling point, and safety, health, and environment (SHE) criteria before experimentally testing selected solvent systems. Five solvents were ultimately selected and combined into binary and ternary mixtures. Using Soxhlet extraction, the study identifies solvent systems that provide high PSO yields while also considering physical properties and preliminary solvent cost, thereby reducing the number of candidates requiring experimental evaluation.

Bibliographic Information

Item	Information
Article Title	Systematic solvent screening and selection for papaya seeds oil (PSO) extraction
Authors	Misbahudin Alhanif; Andri Cahyo Kumoro; Dyah Hesti Wardhani
Journal	Teknomekanik
Volume	9
Issue	3
Publication Year	2026
Pages	302–329
DOI	https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i3.53672
Publisher	Universitas Negeri Padang
License	Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
ISSN	e-ISSN: 2621-8720 p-ISSN: 2621-9980
Keywords	extraction; papaya seeds oil; solvent mixture; solvent screening
Official Article Page	https://teknomekanik.ppj.unp.ac.id/index.php/teknomekanik/article/view/536

Highlights

The study developed a systematic framework to screen 50 candidate solvents for papaya seed oil extraction.
Solvents were screened sequentially using Hansen Solubility Parameters (HSPs), boiling point, and safety, health, and environment (SHE) criteria.
Five solvents were selected for experimental evaluation: ethyl acetate, n-hexane, acetone, ethanol, and water.
Four binary and two ternary solvent mixtures were selected using HSP-based mixture optimization.
The highest experimental PSO yield was 19.28 ± 0.21 wt% using ethyl acetate–n-hexane at 77.20:22.80 vol%.
The n-hexane–acetone–ethanol mixture produced 19.15 ± 0.22 wt% and was proposed as the most promising candidate for further implementation.
The ternary mixture had a lower preliminary estimated solvent price of 997.5 USD/MT compared with 1247.3 USD/MT for the selected ethyl acetate–n-hexane binary mixture.

1. Research Background

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is widely cultivated in equatorial regions, and its processing generates substantial quantities of seed waste. The article reports that papaya seeds account for approximately 15–20% of fruit mass and that papaya seed oil constitutes approximately 27–34% of seed weight. The oil is described as being rich in oleic acid and nutraceutical components, creating potential opportunities for food and industrial applications.

Despite this potential, the article identifies a lack of robust and environmentally considerate extraction strategies for papaya seed oil. Existing approaches often depend on empirical selection of a single solvent or solvent mixture. Such approaches may overlook the relationships among solvent solubility, physical properties, safety, environmental effects, energy requirements, and operating cost.

Solvent selection is particularly important because extraction performance depends on solvent type, extraction method, and operating conditions. The study focuses on Soxhlet extraction as the experimental method. Although Soxhlet is useful for extracting compounds from solid matrices, the article notes disadvantages including relatively long extraction times, substantial solvent consumption, energy requirements, and possible thermal degradation of heat-sensitive components.

The study therefore proposes a structured solvent-screening framework based on three principal criteria: Hansen Solubility Parameters (HSPs), boiling point, and safety, health, and environmental (SHE) considerations. This framework is intended to reduce the number of solvent candidates that require experimental testing and to provide a systematic basis for selecting solvent systems for PSO extraction.

2. Research Objective

To establish a systematic solvent-screening protocol for papaya seed oil extraction.
To screen 50 candidate solvents using HSP compatibility with PSO.
To further screen solvents using boiling-point criteria.
To rank the remaining solvents according to safety, health, and environmental considerations.
To select suitable solvents and formulate binary and ternary solvent mixtures based on HSP compatibility.
To experimentally evaluate the selected solvent systems using Soxhlet extraction.
To compare PSO extraction yield while considering solvent physical properties and preliminary market price.

3. Why This Research Matters

Converts an agricultural by-product into a valuable oil. The study addresses the potential utilization of papaya seeds as a source of PSO rather than treating them solely as processing waste.
Reduces empirical solvent selection. Screening 50 solvents systematically can narrow the experimental workload before laboratory extraction trials are conducted.
Integrates multiple solvent-selection criteria. HSP compatibility, boiling point, and SHE considerations are incorporated into a single screening pathway.
Accounts for solvent interactions. The study does not evaluate only single solvents but also examines binary and ternary solvent systems using mixture-design approaches.
Links extraction performance with practical considerations. The analysis considers physical properties and preliminary solvent prices in addition to extraction yield.
Provides a methodology for further extraction research. The framework is presented as a preliminary screening strategy that can support subsequent physicochemical characterization and process optimization.

4. Research Methodology

The research followed a sequential solvent-screening and experimental-extraction workflow. Papaya seeds were prepared and dried before extraction. Candidate solvents were first screened using Hansen Solubility Parameters, followed by boiling point and SHE criteria. Selected solvents were then combined into binary and ternary formulations, and the resulting systems were evaluated experimentally using Soxhlet extraction.

Preparation of Papaya Seeds

Fresh black seeds were collected from fully ripe California papaya fruits obtained in Semarang, Indonesia. Fifteen fruits were used. The seeds were cleaned from the fruit pulp, and 100 g of seeds were dried at 55°C in a natural-convection oven until constant weight was achieved. The dried seeds were ground and subsequently passed through a 40-mesh sieve before Soxhlet extraction.

Stage 1: HSP-Based Solvent Screening

A total of 50 solvents from different chemical groups were initially considered. These groups included hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones, ethers, esters, amines, polar aprotic solvents, and haloalkanes. The solvent HSP values were used to calculate the relative distance (D) and relative energy difference (RED) between PSO and each solvent.

The PSO HSP values used in the screening at 298.15 K were δ_d = 16.48, δ_p = 3.18, and δ_HB = 5.97 MPa^1/2. The study used RED ≤ 1 as the criterion for favorable solvent compatibility. This initial screening reduced the 50 candidates to 32 solvents.

Stage 2: Boiling-Point Screening

The remaining 32 solvents were screened using boiling point. The study adopted a final selection range of 50–100°C by combining considerations derived from CHEM21 and GlaxoSmithKline guidance. This step reduced the candidate set from 32 to 12 solvents.

The selection considered the balance between solvent volatility, extraction and recovery energy requirements, and the possibility of thermal effects on heat-sensitive components. Very low boiling points may increase solvent losses, whereas very high boiling points may increase evaporation and recovery energy requirements.

Stage 3: SHE-Based Screening

The 12 remaining solvents were evaluated using safety, health, and environmental criteria. The study used an integrated scoring system in which higher scores represent greater hazard. The assessment considered factors including flash point, Globally Harmonized System hazard classifications, health effects, and environmental hazards.

The overall screening identified ethyl acetate and acetone as the two solvents categorized as recommended. However, n-hexane, ethanol, and water were also retained as control or complementary solvents so that differences among non-polar, semi-polar, and polar systems could be evaluated experimentally.

Selection of Binary and Ternary Mixtures

Five solvents were considered as experimental candidates: ethyl acetate, n-hexane, acetone, ethanol, and water. Their binary and ternary combinations were evaluated using solvent-mixture HSP calculations based on volume fractions.

The study employed simplex-lattice and I-optimal mixture designs implemented in Design-Expert version 13.0. The response variable was the RED value, and the desired formulation was the solvent mixture with the lowest RED relative to PSO.

The mixture-design stage included eight binary-mixture runs and 18 ternary-mixture runs. The final selected systems comprised four binary mixtures and two ternary mixtures in addition to the five single-solvent systems.

Soxhlet Extraction

For each extraction experiment, 10 g of dried and sieved papaya seed powder was placed in a cellulose thimble and 300 mL of solvent was used. The extraction was conducted at total reflux at the boiling point of the solvent system for up to 6 hours.

Samples were collected hourly for concentration analysis using calibration curves prepared from mixtures of the corresponding solvent systems and commercial PSO. The calibration curves showed high linearity with R² values greater than 0.980.

Yield and Statistical Analysis

PSO yield was calculated from the PSO concentration in the extract, extract volume, PSO density, and mass of seeds used for extraction. All measurements were performed in triplicate, and results were reported as mean ± standard deviation.

One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed using MS Excel 2016 and Minitab 18 at a 95% confidence level. Tukey's post-hoc test was applied for pairwise comparisons when significant differences were detected.

5. Key Findings

HSP Screening Reduced 50 Solvents to 32 Candidates

The HSP analysis showed that 32 of the 50 candidate solvents had RED values ≤ 1 and were therefore considered to have favorable compatibility with PSO. The lowest RED values among the individual solvents were obtained for n-butyl acetate, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and anisole, with RED values of 0.152, 0.271, 0.286, and 0.295, respectively.

Boiling-Point Screening Further Reduced the Candidate Set

Applying the final 50–100°C boiling-point range eliminated 20 of the 32 HSP-compatible candidates and left 12 solvents for SHE evaluation. This stage illustrates that HSP compatibility alone was not sufficient for final solvent selection.

SHE Screening Identified Ethyl Acetate and Acetone as Recommended Solvents

The SHE analysis classified ethyl acetate and acetone as recommended solvents. Other candidates were classified as problematic or hazardous based on combinations of safety, health, and environmental scores. The study nevertheless retained n-hexane, ethanol, and water as complementary or control solvents to examine a broader range of solvent polarity and extraction behavior.

Binary Mixtures Improved HSP Matching in Selected Cases

Four binary mixtures were identified as promising based on HSP optimization. These were ethyl acetate–n-hexane at 78.33:21.67 vol%, n-hexane–acetone at 51.24:48.76 vol%, n-hexane–ethanol at 71.48:28.52 vol%, and n-hexane–water at 86.78:13.21 vol%.

The selected mixtures produced RED values of 0.208, 0.416, 0.300, and 0.342, respectively, in the corresponding binary optimization analysis.

Two Ternary Mixtures Showed Particularly Favorable HSP Compatibility

Among the ternary formulations, n-hexane–acetone–ethanol at 64.58:8.13:27.28 vol% and n-hexane–acetone–water at 73.07:16.18:10.75 vol% produced the lowest RED values of 0.258 and 0.301, respectively.

The n-hexane–acetone–ethanol system was particularly notable because the addition of acetone and ethanol shifted the HSP characteristics of n-hexane closer to those of PSO.

PSO Extraction Yield Increased with Extraction Time

The Soxhlet experiments showed that PSO yield increased with extraction time before approaching an equilibrium or plateau condition. The extraction curves generally exhibited a rapid initial phase from approximately 0 to 240 minutes, followed by a slower increase from approximately 240 to 360 minutes.

The authors interpreted the initial stage as a period of intensive mass transfer followed by a diffusion-controlled stage. At 300–360 minutes, the change in yield became very small, with a maximum reported change of approximately 0.008% per minute. Based on this behavior, the study identified 300 minutes as an efficient extraction time under the investigated conditions.

Mixed Solvents Produced Higher Yields than Several Single Solvents

The experimental results showed substantial variation among solvent systems. Pure n-hexane produced 10.29 ± 0.13 wt%, while ethanol and water produced 8.74 ± 0.29 wt% and 6.38 ± 0.18 wt%, respectively.

Several mixed-solvent systems produced higher yields in the reported range of approximately 14–19 wt%. The highest yields were obtained with ethyl acetate–n-hexane and n-hexane–acetone–ethanol mixtures.

Ethyl Acetate–n-Hexane Produced the Highest Experimental Yield

The highest experimental PSO yield was obtained using ethyl acetate–n-hexane at 77.20:22.80 vol%, with a yield of 19.28 ± 0.21 wt%. The corresponding solvent mixture had a RED value of 0.206 and an estimated price of 1247.3 USD/MT.

n-Hexane–Acetone–Ethanol Produced a Very Similar Yield at Lower Preliminary Cost

The n-hexane–acetone–ethanol mixture at 64.58:8.13:27.28 vol% produced a PSO yield of 19.15 ± 0.22 wt%. Although this yield was slightly lower than that obtained with ethyl acetate–n-hexane, the ternary mixture had a lower estimated solvent price of 997.5 USD/MT.

The Ternary Mixture Also Showed Favorable Calculated Physical Properties

The study calculated a lower surface tension and boiling point for the selected n-hexane–acetone–ethanol mixture than for the selected ethyl acetate–n-hexane binary system. The reported values were 21.01 mN/m and 56°C for the ternary mixture compared with 22.99 mN/m and 71°C for the binary mixture.

The authors interpret these calculated properties as potentially favorable for mass transfer and reduced energy requirements during extraction and solvent separation. The paper explicitly notes that these advantages remain theoretical and require comprehensive techno-economic, energy, and life-cycle assessment.

The Study Reduced the Number of Candidates Requiring Experimental Testing

The principal methodological outcome is the reduction of 50 initial solvent candidates to five selected solvents and then to a smaller set of single, binary, and ternary systems for Soxhlet experimentation. This multi-stage process provides a structured alternative to empirical testing of a large number of solvents.

6. Scientific Contribution

Systematic integration of solvent-selection criteria. The study combines HSP compatibility, boiling point, and SHE criteria into one sequential screening framework for PSO extraction.
Reduction of experimental workload. The approach narrows 50 candidate solvents to a much smaller group before extraction experiments are performed.
Integration of single and mixed solvent systems. The study evaluates individual solvents as well as binary and ternary formulations.
Application of HSP-based mixture optimization. Simplex-lattice and I-optimal mixture designs are used to identify solvent compositions with low RED values.
Combination of technical and economic considerations. The analysis considers solvent physical properties and preliminary market prices together with extraction yield.
Experimental confirmation of solvent-screening predictions. The optimized candidate mixtures were subsequently evaluated using Soxhlet extraction rather than relying solely on theoretical HSP calculations.
Identification of a promising ternary solvent system. The n-hexane–acetone–ethanol mixture combines a high PSO yield with favorable calculated physical properties and a lower preliminary solvent cost than the highest-yielding binary system.

7. Industrial Implications

Supports valorization of papaya seed waste. Efficient extraction can facilitate the recovery of PSO from papaya-processing residues.
Reduces solvent-screening requirements. The systematic framework can reduce the number of solvent systems that need to be experimentally evaluated.
Provides process-selection guidance. The comparison of solvent systems links solvent compatibility, boiling point, SHE considerations, extraction yield, and preliminary cost.
Identifies a high-yield binary system. Ethyl acetate–n-hexane at 77.20:22.80 vol% produced the highest measured yield of 19.28 ± 0.21 wt%.
Identifies a potentially more economical ternary system. n-Hexane–acetone–ethanol at 64.58:8.13:27.28 vol% produced 19.15 ± 0.22 wt% with a lower preliminary estimated solvent price.
Highlights solvent-risk considerations. The study does not treat high extraction yield as the sole selection criterion and explicitly evaluates solvent safety, health, and environmental characteristics.
Supports future process intensification. The findings provide a screening basis for subsequent investigation of alternative extraction technologies, extraction kinetics, energy efficiency, and process optimization.

8. Research Limitations

The study represents an initial solvent-screening phase rather than a complete optimization of the entire PSO extraction process.
The HSP analysis uses an R₀ value of 9.8 MPa^1/2 derived from coconut-oil data because of the reported similarity between PSO and coconut-oil HSPs. The authors recognize this as a theoretical assumption and recommend experimental determination of R₀ for PSO.
The extraction experiments were conducted using a conventional Soxhlet process, which involves relatively long extraction times and solvent consumption.
The experimental extraction analysis used a one-factor-at-a-time approach and therefore did not explicitly model interactions among extraction temperature, extraction time, and solids-to-solvent ratio.
The study does not provide comprehensive characterization of the extracted oil, such as a complete fatty-acid profile and detailed nutraceutical composition.
The reported advantages of the ternary solvent concerning mass transfer, energy demand, and safety are partly based on calculated or preliminary assessments rather than a complete process-scale validation.
The preliminary solvent-cost comparison does not constitute a comprehensive techno-economic assessment.
A complete energy balance and life-cycle assessment were not performed.

9. Future Research Opportunities

Experimentally determine the PSO HSP solubility radius. Direct experimental determination of R₀ could improve the accuracy of HSP-based solvent screening.
Perform complete PSO characterization. Future studies should investigate fatty-acid profiles, physicochemical properties, and nutraceutical components of the extracted oil.
Optimize extraction variables simultaneously. Response Surface Methodology or another Design of Experiments approach could evaluate interactions among extraction temperature, time, and solids-to-solvent ratio.
Conduct comprehensive techno-economic analysis. The preliminary solvent-price comparison should be extended to include solvent recovery, equipment, utilities, energy consumption, and process economics.
Perform energy and life-cycle assessments. These analyses are needed to determine whether the calculated physical and economic advantages translate into actual process-level sustainability benefits.
Compare intensified extraction technologies. Ultrasonic Assisted Extraction and Supercritical Fluid Extraction should be evaluated against Soxhlet extraction in terms of yield, kinetics, energy efficiency, and solvent requirements.
Investigate the quality of PSO obtained with different solvent systems. Future studies should determine whether solvent selection changes fatty-acid composition, nutraceutical content, oxidative stability, and other quality attributes.
Assess safer alternatives to n-hexane. The selected ternary system still contains n-hexane, so future research should investigate formulations that reduce or eliminate this solvent while maintaining extraction performance.

10. Potential for Public Policy Citation

The study may be relevant to policies and research programs concerned with agricultural-waste valorization, circular bioeconomy development, renewable food and industrial resources, and safer chemical processing. The work demonstrates a structured pathway for converting papaya seed residues into an oil product while incorporating solvent safety and environmental considerations into the selection process.

The study is particularly relevant as an example of how solvent screening can move beyond extraction yield alone. By considering HSP compatibility, boiling point, safety, health, environmental effects, and preliminary cost, the research provides a framework that could inform future technology-development programs involving plant-derived oils.

However, the present findings should not be interpreted as evidence that a particular solvent system is already suitable for industrial deployment. The article itself recommends additional oil characterization, process optimization, techno-economic assessment, energy analysis, life-cycle assessment, and comparison with intensified extraction technologies.

11. Who Should Read This Paper?

Chemical engineers working on solvent extraction and separation processes.
Researchers studying vegetable oils and seed-oil extraction.
Researchers investigating Hansen Solubility Parameters and solvent selection.
Food and biochemical engineers interested in recovery of oil and nutraceutical compounds from agricultural by-products.
Researchers working on green and sustainable solvent systems.
Process engineers evaluating solvent mixtures for extraction applications.
Graduate students studying extraction, solvent engineering, and chemical process optimization.
Researchers interested in papaya seed oil and agricultural-waste valorization.

12. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

What is the main objective of the study?

The study aims to establish a systematic framework for screening and selecting solvents for papaya seed oil extraction by considering HSP compatibility, boiling point, and safety, health, and environmental criteria.

How many solvents were screened initially?

The study initially evaluated 50 candidate solvents representing several chemical groups.

How were the solvents screened?

The screening was conducted sequentially using Hansen Solubility Parameters, boiling point, and safety, health, and environmental criteria.

How many solvents were finally selected?

Five solvents were selected for the experimental design: ethyl acetate, n-hexane, acetone, ethanol, and water.

Which extraction method was used?

The study used Soxhlet extraction with 10 g of dried papaya seed powder and 300 mL of solvent, with extraction conducted at total reflux at the boiling point of the solvent system.

How long was the Soxhlet extraction performed?

The extraction was conducted for up to 6 hours, with samples collected hourly. The analysis of the extraction curves indicated that increasing the extraction time beyond approximately 300 minutes produced only a very small additional increase in yield under the investigated conditions.

What was the highest PSO extraction yield?

The highest reported yield was 19.28 ± 0.21 wt% using an ethyl acetate–n-hexane binary mixture at 77.20:22.80 vol%.

Which ternary mixture performed best?

The n-hexane–acetone–ethanol mixture at 64.58:8.13:27.28 vol% produced 19.15 ± 0.22 wt% and was proposed as the most promising candidate for further implementation.

Why was the ternary mixture considered attractive despite its slightly lower yield?

The authors identified favorable calculated physical properties, including lower surface tension and boiling point, and a lower preliminary solvent price of 997.5 USD/MT compared with 1247.3 USD/MT for the selected ethyl acetate–n-hexane mixture.

What is the main limitation of the solvent-screening framework?

One important limitation is that the HSP screening uses an R₀ value derived from coconut-oil data rather than experimentally determined PSO-specific data. The authors therefore recommend direct determination of the PSO solubility radius in future work.

Did the study completely optimize the PSO extraction process?

No. The study is presented as a preliminary screening phase. The authors recommend further optimization using a Design of Experiments approach to evaluate interactions among extraction variables.

Was the quality of the extracted PSO fully characterized?

No. The study explicitly identifies comprehensive characterization of fatty-acid and nutraceutical profiles as an important direction for future research.

13. Final Thoughts

This study provides a structured approach to solvent selection for papaya seed oil extraction by integrating three major screening dimensions: Hansen Solubility Parameters, boiling point, and safety, health, and environmental considerations. Starting from 50 candidate solvents, the researchers progressively narrowed the selection before experimentally evaluating a limited number of single, binary, and ternary solvent systems.

The experimental results demonstrate that solvent mixtures can outperform several single-solvent systems under the investigated Soxhlet conditions. The highest yield of 19.28 ± 0.21 wt% was obtained with ethyl acetate–n-hexane at 77.20:22.80 vol%, while n-hexane–acetone–ethanol at 64.58:8.13:27.28 vol% produced a closely comparable yield of 19.15 ± 0.22 wt%.

The n-hexane–acetone–ethanol system is particularly noteworthy because the study combines its high extraction yield with calculated physical-property advantages and a lower preliminary solvent price. Nevertheless, the paper appropriately treats these advantages as preliminary rather than conclusive evidence of industrial superiority.

The strongest contribution of the research is therefore methodological. Rather than relying exclusively on empirical solvent trials, the study establishes a multi-stage screening procedure that can substantially reduce the number of candidates requiring laboratory experimentation. Further research should now move toward experimental validation of the theoretical assumptions, comprehensive oil-quality characterization, integrated process optimization, techno-economic analysis, energy assessment, and life-cycle evaluation.

14. Suggested Citations

Teknomekanik (UNP) Style

M. Alhanif, A. C. Kumoro, and D. H. Wardhani, "Systematic solvent screening and selection for papaya seeds oil (PSO) extraction," Teknomekanik, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 302–329, 2026, https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i3.53672.

APA (7th Edition)

Alhanif, M., Kumoro, A. C., & Wardhani, D. H. (2026). Systematic solvent screening and selection for papaya seeds oil (PSO) extraction. Teknomekanik, 9(3), 302–329. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i3.53672

IEEE Style

Harvard Style

Alhanif, M., Kumoro, A.C. and Wardhani, D.H. (2026) 'Systematic solvent screening and selection for papaya seeds oil (PSO) extraction', Teknomekanik, 9(3), pp. 302–329. doi:10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i3.53672.

Vancouver Style

Alhanif M, Kumoro AC, Wardhani DH. Systematic solvent screening and selection for papaya seeds oil (PSO) extraction. Teknomekanik. 2026;9(3):302–329. doi:10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i3.53672.

Chicago (Author–Date)

Alhanif, Misbahudin, Andri Cahyo Kumoro, and Dyah Hesti Wardhani. 2026. "Systematic Solvent Screening and Selection for Papaya Seeds Oil (PSO) Extraction." Teknomekanik 9 (3): 302–329. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i3.53672.

MLA (9th Edition)

Alhanif, Misbahudin, et al. "Systematic Solvent Screening and Selection for Papaya Seeds Oil (PSO) Extraction." Teknomekanik, vol. 9, no. 3, 2026, pp. 302–329. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i3.53672.

15. Editorial Note

This Engineering Research Insights review has been prepared for scholarly communication based on the published article. The scientific analysis is derived from the article itself, while bibliographic information has been verified against the official Teknomekanik article page and the publication record.

The review is intended to provide researchers, engineers, graduate students, and other readers with an accessible overview of the study's research background, methodology, major findings, scientific contribution, practical implications, and limitations. It should not be used as a substitute for the original article.

Readers are strongly encouraged to consult and cite the original publication whenever the methods, data, findings, calculations, or concepts discussed in this review are used in academic publications, theses, dissertations, technical reports, or other scholarly work.

Original article: https://teknomekanik.ppj.unp.ac.id/index.php/teknomekanik/article/view/536

16. SEO Meta Description

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17. SEO Keywords

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