Comparative Analysis of Bio-Inspired and Topology-Optimized Lattices: Advancing Mechanical Performance through CAD Unit Cell Patterning

Lightweight lattice structures have become an essential component of modern engineering because they offer an exceptional combination of low weight and high mechanical performance. Their applications span aerospace, biomedical implants, automotive engineering, and advanced manufacturing, where minimizing material consumption without sacrificing structural integrity is increasingly important. Although conventional strut-based and triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) lattices have been extensively investigated, both exhibit inherent design limitations that restrict further performance improvements. The study reviewed here introduces two novel lattice geometries—Pyramorph and Topomorph—and proposes a CAD Unit Cell Patterning technique that transforms bio-inspired and topology-optimized geometries into manufacturable, cubic-symmetric lattice cells. Through finite element analysis and experimental compression testing, the research demonstrates how topology optimization combined with CAD-based patterning can significantly improve compressive strength while maintaining comparable relative density.

Bibliographic Information

Item	Information
Article Title	Comparative analysis of bio-inspired and topology-optimized lattices under compressive loading
Authors	Ahmad Anas Arifin; I Made Londen Batan; Michele Bici; Arif Wahjudi; Agus Sigit Pramono
Journal	Teknomekanik
Volume	9
Issue	1
Publication Date	February 2026
Pages	1–24
DOI	https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i1.45472
Publisher	Universitas Negeri Padang
License	Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
ISSN (Electronic)	2621-8720
ISSN (Print)	2621-9980
Keywords	lattice structures; topology optimization; compressive behaviour; material engineering

Research Background

Advanced lattice structures have attracted considerable attention because they provide excellent strength-to-weight ratios while reducing material usage. Their unique cellular architecture enables engineers to design components that are lightweight yet mechanically efficient, making them particularly valuable in aerospace, biomedical, transportation, and energy applications.

Most lattice research has traditionally focused on two major categories: strut-based lattices and surface-based lattices such as Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces (TPMS). While both approaches have demonstrated impressive structural performance, they also possess notable limitations. Strut-based lattices frequently exhibit strong anisotropic behaviour because their mechanical response depends heavily on loading direction and unit-cell orientation. Conversely, TPMS structures are considerably more difficult to modify when geometric constraints or application-specific boundary conditions must be satisfied.

Previous studies have shown that increasing relative density generally improves stiffness and compressive strength. However, relative density alone does not determine lattice performance. Unit-cell geometry also plays a decisive role in governing deformation mechanisms, stress distribution, and failure behaviour. Different lattice morphologies having identical densities may therefore produce substantially different mechanical responses.

Researchers have increasingly explored biomimicry and topology optimization as alternative approaches for generating new lattice geometries. Biomimetic design draws inspiration from naturally efficient structures, while topology optimization mathematically determines optimal material distribution under prescribed loading conditions. Despite their promise, many existing implementations still require extensive post-processing before practical manufacturing and often produce geometries that are unsuitable for direct periodic replication.

To overcome these challenges, the authors propose a CAD Unit Cell Patterning technique capable of transforming both bio-inspired and topology-optimized geometries into cubic-symmetric lattice cells that can be replicated efficiently for additive manufacturing. The approach seeks to simplify lattice generation while preserving mechanical efficiency and manufacturability.

Research Objective

The study aims to investigate whether newly developed bio-inspired and topology-optimized lattice geometries can improve compressive mechanical performance while maintaining identical relative densities.

More specifically, the research seeks to:

Develop two novel lattice geometries named Pyramorph and Topomorph.
Introduce a CAD Unit Cell Patterning methodology capable of converting complex geometries into repeatable cubic-symmetric lattice cells.
Evaluate the influence of unit-cell orientation on compressive strength.
Investigate the influence of cell size on mechanical behaviour.
Compare experimental compression testing with finite element analysis.
Determine whether topology optimization produces superior lattice performance compared with a bio-inspired design having equivalent relative density.

Why This Research Matters

This study addresses one of the most significant challenges in lattice engineering: developing new cellular geometries that simultaneously improve structural performance and manufacturing feasibility.

Expands lattice design possibilities. Instead of modifying existing BCC or TPMS structures, the research introduces entirely new lattice morphologies derived from biomimicry and topology optimization.
Bridges computational design and manufacturing. The CAD Unit Cell Patterning method provides a practical workflow that converts optimized geometries into manufacturable unit cells suitable for additive manufacturing.
Improves lightweight structural design. Higher compressive strength at equivalent density enables engineers to reduce structural weight without compromising load-bearing capacity.
Supports additive manufacturing innovation. The proposed workflow is compatible with Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), demonstrating practical applicability using commercially available equipment.
Provides valuable experimental validation. Mechanical simulations are verified through laboratory compression testing, strengthening confidence in the proposed lattice designs.
Encourages future lattice innovation. The methodology offers researchers an adaptable framework for developing additional lattice geometries beyond traditional strut-based and TPMS architectures.

Research Methodology

The researchers employed an experimental engineering methodology that integrated computer-aided design, topology optimization, additive manufacturing, finite element analysis (FEA), and laboratory compression testing. Rather than relying solely on numerical simulations, the study validated computational predictions through physical experiments performed on fabricated lattice specimens. This integrated workflow enabled a comprehensive comparison between two newly developed lattice geometries while maintaining equivalent relative densities.

Development of Novel Lattice Geometries

Two different lattice architectures were developed. The first, named Pyramorph, was inspired by the geometric stability of Egyptian pyramids. The design process mathematically constructed interconnected pyramidal elements within a cubic domain to achieve geometric symmetry and balanced load distribution along the X, Y, and Z directions.

The second lattice, called Topomorph, originated from topology optimization. Instead of manually defining structural members, material distribution was optimized using engineering boundary conditions to maximize structural stiffness while minimizing weight. The optimized geometry was subsequently reconstructed into a repeatable lattice cell using the proposed CAD Unit Cell Patterning technique.

CAD Unit Cell Patterning Technique

One of the principal methodological contributions is the introduction of the CAD Unit Cell Patterning workflow. Unlike conventional topology optimization that often generates irregular geometries unsuitable for periodic repetition, the proposed approach converts optimized shapes into cubic-symmetric unit cells that can be tessellated throughout larger lattice structures.

The workflow consists of multiple geometric operations including CAD reinterpretation, mirroring, intersecting, circular pattern generation, trimming, density control, isotropy adjustment, and lattice replication. This sequence enables both bio-inspired and topology-optimized geometries to become manufacturable cellular architectures while preserving geometric consistency.

Topology Optimization Procedure

Topology optimization was performed using Altair OptiStruct. Three loading scenarios were considered during optimization:

Normal compressive loading.
Shear loading.
Torsional loading.

The optimization objective minimized structural compliance while maximizing stiffness under a 30% volume fraction constraint. The optimized geometry was exported into CAD software, reconstructed mathematically, and converted into the final Topomorph lattice.

Mathematical Reconstruction

MATLAB was used exclusively for geometric reconstruction rather than mechanical simulation. Circular profiles, shifted-center geometries, and parametric curves were extracted from the optimized CAD model to establish mathematical representations of the Topomorph lattice. These equations facilitated accurate replication of the lattice geometry while maintaining symmetry across all principal axes.

Relative Density Control

To ensure a fair comparison, both lattice designs were produced with nearly identical relative densities ranging from approximately 0.40 to 0.44. Additional through-holes were incorporated into the Topomorph design to reduce material volume while preserving compressive performance and improving isotropic behaviour.

Additive Manufacturing

Experimental specimens were fabricated using Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). A Flashforge Creator Pro 2 printer was employed together with PLA filament. Printing parameters, including nozzle temperature, layer height, bed temperature, and nozzle diameter, were carefully controlled to ensure consistent specimen quality across all experimental conditions.

Experimental Variables

Mechanical performance was investigated by varying two primary design parameters:

Cell orientation of 0°, 15°, 30°, and 45°.
Unit-cell sizes of 8 mm and 12 mm within identical specimen dimensions.

These variables enabled the researchers to evaluate how geometric orientation and cell scale influence compressive strength and deformation behaviour.

Finite Element Analysis

Finite element analysis was conducted prior to experimental testing to predict stress distribution, deformation behaviour, and compressive response. Numerical simulations provided theoretical performance estimates that were subsequently compared with physical compression experiments to evaluate the reliability of the proposed lattice designs.

Compression Testing

Physical specimens were subjected to uniaxial compression testing until structural failure occurred. Load-displacement responses, compressive strength, deformation characteristics, and failure mechanisms were recorded for every specimen. Particular attention was given to identifying differences between buckling, delamination, and progressive collapse behaviours.

Key Findings

Topomorph Consistently Outperformed the Bio-Inspired Lattice

The experimental results clearly demonstrated that the topology-optimized Topomorph lattice exhibited substantially higher compressive strength than the Pyramorph lattice despite having comparable relative density. Whereas Pyramorph specimens generally achieved compressive strengths between approximately 7 and 8 MPa, Topomorph specimens consistently reached values between approximately 15 and 20 MPa.

The highest compressive strength, approximately 20.5 MPa, was obtained by the Topomorph lattice using an 8 mm cell size at a 0° orientation, indicating that topology optimization significantly enhanced structural efficiency.

Cell Orientation Influenced Mechanical Behaviour

Orientation significantly affected compressive performance for both lattice types. The 0° orientation generally produced the highest mechanical strength because the principal load direction aligned with the dominant structural members. Increasing the orientation angle reduced compressive performance as loading became less aligned with the optimized load paths.

Cell Size Affected Structural Performance

Specimens incorporating smaller 8 mm unit cells generally demonstrated higher compressive strength than those with 12 mm cells. The increased number of load-bearing elements improved stress distribution and delayed structural collapse under compression.

Failure Modes Differed Between Both Designs

Distinct failure mechanisms were observed during compression testing. The Pyramorph lattice frequently exhibited localized buckling followed by delamination between printed layers, indicating stress concentration at specific geometric locations. In contrast, the Topomorph lattice demonstrated progressive collapse behaviour, distributing deformation more uniformly throughout the structure and delaying catastrophic failure.

Finite Element Analysis Agreed with Experimental Results

Finite element simulations closely reflected the trends observed during laboratory testing. Both computational and experimental analyses consistently identified the Topomorph lattice as mechanically superior, confirming the effectiveness of the proposed topology optimization and CAD reconstruction methodology.

CAD Unit Cell Patterning Successfully Produced Manufacturable Lattices

The proposed CAD Unit Cell Patterning technique effectively transformed both bio-inspired and topology-optimized geometries into repeatable cubic-symmetric lattice cells suitable for additive manufacturing. The workflow substantially reduced the geometric complexity commonly associated with topology optimization while preserving desirable mechanical characteristics.

Scientific Contribution

Introduces two original lattice morphologies, Pyramorph and Topomorph, expanding the range of available lattice architectures for lightweight engineering applications.
Develops a CAD Unit Cell Patterning methodology that converts complex optimized geometries into manufacturable cubic-symmetric lattice cells.
Provides one of the first direct experimental comparisons between bio-inspired and topology-optimized lattices under identical relative density conditions.
Demonstrates that topology optimization can substantially increase compressive strength without increasing material consumption.
Integrates mathematical reconstruction, CAD modeling, topology optimization, additive manufacturing, finite element analysis, and experimental validation within a unified engineering workflow.
Provides experimentally verified evidence supporting the adoption of topology-optimized lattice architectures for future lightweight structural applications.

Industrial Implications

The findings provide practical guidance for engineers involved in lightweight structural design and additive manufacturing. Because the Topomorph lattice exhibited significantly greater compressive strength without increasing material usage, the proposed methodology offers considerable potential for industrial implementation.

Lightweight aerospace structures requiring high strength-to-weight ratios.
Energy-absorbing automotive components.
Biomedical implants incorporating porous cellular architectures.
Advanced mechanical components manufactured through additive manufacturing.
Topology-optimized engineering products requiring efficient material utilization.
Future digital manufacturing workflows integrating CAD automation with optimization algorithms.

Research Limitations

Although the study presents a promising framework for developing high-performance lattice structures, several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings.

Limited material selection. All experimental specimens were fabricated using polylactic acid (PLA) through the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) process. Consequently, the reported mechanical performance cannot be directly generalized to metallic, ceramic, or composite lattice materials.
Single additive manufacturing process. The investigation focused exclusively on FDM fabrication. Other additive manufacturing technologies, such as Selective Laser Melting (SLM), Electron Beam Melting (EBM), or Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), were not evaluated and may produce different mechanical responses due to their higher manufacturing precision and material characteristics.
Mechanical loading was restricted to uniaxial compression. The experimental validation concentrated solely on compressive behaviour. Tensile loading, cyclic fatigue, impact resistance, shear loading, torsional loading, and long-term durability were outside the scope of the investigation.
Limited geometric parameters. Only two unit-cell sizes (8 mm and 12 mm) and four loading orientations (0°, 15°, 30°, and 45°) were experimentally investigated. Other combinations of lattice dimensions and orientations may produce different structural responses.
Relative density range remained narrow. Both lattice geometries were intentionally designed with nearly identical relative densities to enable fair comparison. The influence of substantially higher or lower relative densities therefore remains unexplored.
The proposed geometries require broader validation. Although Topomorph demonstrated superior compressive performance under the investigated conditions, additional validation involving different materials, manufacturing processes, loading conditions, and application scenarios would strengthen confidence in its broader engineering applicability.

Future Research Opportunities

The study establishes a strong foundation for future investigations into advanced lattice engineering. Several research directions naturally emerge from the reported findings.

Evaluate the proposed lattice geometries using metallic additive manufacturing technologies such as Selective Laser Melting and Electron Beam Melting.
Investigate additional engineering materials including titanium alloys, stainless steels, aluminum alloys, polymers with reinforced fibers, and advanced composites.
Study fatigue resistance, impact behaviour, fracture toughness, and long-term durability under cyclic loading conditions.
Develop automated topology optimization frameworks capable of generating lattice geometries specifically tailored to application-dependent loading scenarios.
Integrate artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms into lattice geometry optimization to accelerate design exploration.
Investigate functionally graded lattice structures with spatially varying relative densities and cell morphologies.
Assess thermal, vibration, acoustic, and energy absorption characteristics of Topomorph and related lattice architectures.
Extend the CAD Unit Cell Patterning workflow to additional biomimetic geometries inspired by naturally optimized biological structures.
Explore multi-objective optimization approaches that simultaneously consider strength, stiffness, manufacturability, weight reduction, and production cost.
Validate the proposed lattice designs in real engineering applications involving aerospace structures, orthopedic implants, automotive crash absorbers, and lightweight robotic components.

Potential for Public Policy Citation

Although this research primarily contributes to materials engineering and additive manufacturing, its findings also possess relevance for technology development policies that promote advanced manufacturing and industrial innovation.

Government agencies responsible for manufacturing modernization may reference this work when developing strategies supporting Industry 4.0 implementation, digital engineering, lightweight product development, and sustainable manufacturing technologies. The demonstrated integration of topology optimization, CAD automation, and additive manufacturing aligns well with national initiatives encouraging digital product innovation and advanced production systems.

The study may also inform research funding priorities involving additive manufacturing, computational design, smart manufacturing, and engineering education by illustrating practical methods for combining computational optimization with experimental validation.

Who Should Read This Paper?

Mechanical engineers working on lightweight structural design.
Researchers specializing in additive manufacturing.
Materials scientists investigating cellular materials.
Engineers developing topology optimization algorithms.
Industrial designers utilizing computational design techniques.
Researchers working on biomimetic engineering.
Graduate students studying advanced manufacturing.
Product development engineers seeking high-performance lightweight structures.
Biomedical engineers designing porous implant architectures.
Aerospace and automotive engineers focused on weight reduction.

Final Thoughts

This study demonstrates that meaningful advances in lattice engineering can be achieved not only through increasingly sophisticated optimization algorithms but also through innovative geometric interpretation and manufacturable design strategies. By introducing the Pyramorph and Topomorph lattices together with the CAD Unit Cell Patterning methodology, the authors provide a practical framework that bridges computational design and additive manufacturing.

Among the two investigated geometries, the topology-optimized Topomorph lattice consistently exhibited superior compressive performance while maintaining nearly identical relative density to its bio-inspired counterpart. The integration of topology optimization, mathematical reconstruction, finite element analysis, and experimental validation illustrates a comprehensive engineering workflow that is both scientifically rigorous and industrially relevant.

Beyond comparing two lattice geometries, the research offers a scalable methodology for future lattice development. The proposed CAD Unit Cell Patterning approach simplifies the transformation of complex optimized geometries into manufacturable unit cells, providing a valuable contribution to additive manufacturing, lightweight structural engineering, and digital product development.

Suggested Citations

UNP–Teknomekanik Style

Arifin AA, Batan IML, Bici M, Wahjudi A, Pramono AS. Comparative analysis of bio-inspired and topology-optimized lattices under compressive loading. Teknomekanik. 2026;9(1):1–24. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i1.45472

APA (7th Edition)

Arifin, A. A., Batan, I. M. L., Bici, M., Wahjudi, A., & Pramono, A. S. (2026). Comparative analysis of bio-inspired and topology-optimized lattices under compressive loading. Teknomekanik, 9(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i1.45472

IEEE

A. A. Arifin, I. M. L. Batan, M. Bici, A. Wahjudi, and A. S. Pramono, "Comparative analysis of bio-inspired and topology-optimized lattices under compressive loading," Teknomekanik, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–24, Feb. 2026, doi:10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i1.45472.

Harvard

Arifin, A.A., Batan, I.M.L., Bici, M., Wahjudi, A. and Pramono, A.S., 2026. Comparative analysis of bio-inspired and topology-optimized lattices under compressive loading. Teknomekanik, 9(1), pp.1–24. Available at: https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i1.45472

Vancouver

Chicago (Author–Date)

Arifin, Ahmad Anas, I Made Londen Batan, Michele Bici, Arif Wahjudi, and Agus Sigit Pramono. 2026. "Comparative Analysis of Bio-Inspired and Topology-Optimized Lattices under Compressive Loading." Teknomekanik 9 (1): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i1.45472.

MLA (9th Edition)

Arifin, Ahmad Anas, et al. "Comparative Analysis of Bio-Inspired and Topology-Optimized Lattices under Compressive Loading." Teknomekanik, vol. 9, no. 1, 2026, pp. 1–24. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i1.45472.

Editorial Note

This review has been prepared exclusively from the published article entitled Comparative analysis of bio-inspired and topology-optimized lattices under compressive loading. Bibliographic metadata were verified against the official journal webpage, while the scientific analysis—including the background, objectives, methodology, findings, contributions, limitations, and future research opportunities—was derived solely from the published article. The review is intended for educational and scholarly communication purposes to improve accessibility to recent engineering research while preserving the original scientific context.

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