How Ferronickel Slag and Seawater Could Redefine Sustainable Concrete for Coastal Infrastructure

The construction industry is under increasing pressure to reduce its dependence on finite natural resources while maintaining the durability and structural performance of concrete. Freshwater scarcity, excessive extraction of natural river sand, and the accumulation of industrial by-products have become interconnected sustainability challenges that directly affect future infrastructure development. Coastal regions, however, possess two largely underutilized resources: seawater and ferronickel slag. Their potential use in concrete production could simultaneously conserve natural resources and promote circular economy practices.

Although previous studies have independently investigated seawater and industrial slag in concrete, questions remain regarding their combined influence on long-term mechanical performance and durability. Understanding these interactions is particularly important for marine and coastal structures that must withstand aggressive chloride environments while minimizing environmental impacts. The reviewed study addresses this knowledge gap through a comprehensive experimental investigation, providing valuable evidence on how optimized ferronickel slag replacement can enhance seawater concrete and contribute to more sustainable construction practices.

Bibliographic Information

Item	Information
Article Title	Durability performances of ferronickel slag aggregate and seawater concrete
Authors	Nevy Sandra, Muhammad Akbar Caronge, Jati Sunaryati, Keiyu Kawaai, Willick Nsama, Yaumal Arbi, and Ari Syaiful Rahman Arifin
Journal	Teknomekanik
Volume & Issue	Volume 8, Issue 1
Publication Year	2025
Pages	79–98
DOI	https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34572
Publisher	Universitas Negeri Padang
License	Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

1. Research Background

The construction sector faces increasing pressure to reduce freshwater consumption. Concrete production depends heavily on freshwater for mixing and curing, yet global water scarcity continues to intensify. Since concrete manufacturing accounts for a considerable proportion of industrial water use, identifying alternative water sources has become an important sustainability objective.
Natural sand extraction has become an environmental concern. Rapid urbanization and infrastructure expansion have accelerated the depletion of river sand resources. Excessive mining disturbs river ecosystems, increases environmental degradation, and raises concerns about the long-term availability of high-quality fine aggregates.
Seawater offers an attractive but controversial alternative. Coastal regions possess abundant seawater that could replace freshwater during concrete production. Previous research has demonstrated that seawater can accelerate cement hydration and improve early-age strength. However, dissolved chlorides and sulfates may negatively affect long-term durability and increase corrosion risks for reinforced concrete structures.
Industrial by-products provide opportunities for circular construction. Ferronickel slag, generated during nickel smelting, is produced in very large quantities, particularly in nickel-producing countries such as Indonesia. Rather than disposing of this material as industrial waste, researchers have increasingly explored its potential as a partial replacement for natural fine aggregates in concrete.
Previous studies have demonstrated promising individual benefits. Earlier investigations reported that ferronickel slag can improve compressive strength, reduce permeability, and enhance resistance to aggressive environments because of its favorable physical characteristics and pozzolanic behavior. Similarly, seawater has shown advantages in accelerating hydration and early strength development under certain conditions.
The interaction between seawater and ferronickel slag remains insufficiently understood. Most published studies have evaluated seawater concrete and ferronickel slag concrete separately. Limited evidence exists regarding their combined effects on fresh properties, mechanical performance, abrasion resistance, porosity, and chloride penetration within a single concrete system.
Long-term durability remains a critical knowledge gap. Although seawater may enhance early hydration, prolonged exposure to dissolved salts can contribute to microcracking and strength reduction. Whether ferronickel slag can mitigate these long-term effects has not been comprehensively investigated through integrated durability testing.
This study proposes an integrated sustainable concrete approach. By simultaneously utilizing seawater as mixing water and ferronickel slag as a partial replacement for natural sand, the research evaluates whether two unconventional resources can work synergistically to produce durable, environmentally responsible concrete suitable for coastal and resource-constrained regions.

2. Research Objectives

To investigate the feasibility of combining seawater and ferronickel slag as sustainable alternative materials for concrete production.
To evaluate the influence of different ferronickel slag replacement levels on the fresh properties of concrete, including workability and fresh density.
To examine the effects of seawater and ferronickel slag on compressive strength at different curing ages.
To assess important durability indicators, including water absorption, chloride ion penetration, porosity, and abrasion resistance.
To identify the optimum ferronickel slag replacement ratio capable of balancing workability, mechanical performance, and long-term durability.
To determine whether ferronickel slag can compensate for the long-term durability challenges associated with seawater concrete.
To provide experimental evidence supporting the development of sustainable concrete technologies suitable for coastal and resource-limited environments.

3. Why This Research Matters

Promotes sustainable resource utilization. Replacing freshwater and natural river sand with seawater and ferronickel slag reduces dependence on increasingly scarce natural resources while supporting circular economy principles.
Provides a productive use for industrial waste. Utilizing ferronickel slag in concrete transforms a large-volume metallurgical by-product into a value-added construction material, reducing landfill disposal and environmental burdens.
Supports resilient coastal infrastructure. The findings contribute to the development of concrete mixtures capable of performing under chloride-rich marine environments where conventional materials often experience accelerated deterioration.
Advances durable concrete technology. Understanding how ferronickel slag modifies pore structure and chloride permeability offers engineers practical strategies for improving concrete durability without relying solely on conventional materials.
Contributes to environmentally responsible engineering. Reducing freshwater consumption while recycling industrial by-products aligns with international efforts to lower the environmental footprint of construction activities and promote sustainable infrastructure development.
Supports innovation in materials engineering. The study expands knowledge regarding alternative aggregate technologies and demonstrates how industrial residues can be engineered to improve both mechanical performance and durability.
Addresses practical challenges in developing regions. Countries with abundant coastal resources and ferronickel production may benefit from locally available materials, reducing construction costs associated with transporting freshwater and natural aggregates over long distances.
Contributes to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The research supports cleaner production, responsible consumption of natural resources, sustainable cities and communities, and improved industrial resource efficiency through innovative concrete technology.

4. Research Methodology

The study adopted an experimental quantitative research design to evaluate the feasibility of incorporating ferronickel slag (SL) as a partial replacement for natural fine aggregate and seawater (SW) as an alternative mixing water in concrete production. Rather than investigating only compressive strength, the researchers conducted a comprehensive durability assessment by integrating fresh property measurements, mechanical testing, permeability evaluation, abrasion resistance analysis, and microstructural considerations. This holistic approach enabled the interaction between seawater and ferronickel slag to be examined throughout different stages of concrete performance, providing a more complete understanding of their combined influence on sustainable concrete technology.

The experimental program was carefully designed to identify the optimum ferronickel slag replacement level capable of improving both mechanical performance and durability while minimizing the adverse effects commonly associated with seawater concrete. All experimental procedures followed internationally recognized ASTM standards and relevant Indonesian National Standards (SNI), ensuring the reliability and reproducibility of the obtained results.

Research Design

Research type: Experimental laboratory investigation.
Research approach: Quantitative evaluation of fresh, mechanical, and durability properties of concrete.
Main objective: To investigate the synergistic effects of ferronickel slag aggregate and seawater on concrete performance.
Experimental strategy: Comparative testing among six concrete mixtures with different combinations of mixing water and ferronickel slag replacement levels.

Materials Used

The researchers selected locally available materials to support the sustainability objective of the study. Portland Composite Cement (PCC) served as the primary binder. Natural river sand was used as the reference fine aggregate, while crushed stone with a maximum size of 20 mm functioned as the coarse aggregate. Ferronickel slag obtained from a local nickel smelter in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, was processed and sieved to obtain particles smaller than 4.75 mm before being incorporated into the concrete mixtures.

Unlike conventional concrete studies, this investigation also replaced tap water with natural seawater collected from the coastal area of South Sulawesi. The seawater contained naturally occurring chloride, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfate ions that were expected to influence cement hydration and long-term durability. The physical characteristics of ferronickel slag—including higher specific gravity, lower water absorption, and predominantly spherical particle morphology observed through SEM imaging—were expected to improve particle packing and workability while reducing concrete permeability.

Binder: Portland Composite Cement (PCC).
Fine aggregate: Natural river sand.
Alternative fine aggregate: Ferronickel slag (SL).
Coarse aggregate: Crushed stone (maximum size 20 mm).
Mixing water: Tap water (TW) and natural seawater (SW).
Source of ferronickel slag: Local ferronickel smelter, South Sulawesi, Indonesia.

Concrete Mixture Design

A constant water-to-cement ratio of 0.50 was maintained for every concrete mixture to ensure that observed performance differences resulted primarily from the replacement materials rather than variations in water content. Ferronickel slag was introduced as a volumetric replacement for natural sand at two replacement levels (25% and 50%), while both tap water and seawater were independently used as mixing water. This factorial design enabled direct comparisons between conventional concrete and concrete incorporating sustainable alternative materials.

Mix Code	Mixing Water	Ferronickel Slag Replacement
TW-0SL	Tap water	0%
TW-25SL	Tap water	25%
TW-50SL	Tap water	50%
SW-0SL	Seawater	0%
SW-25SL	Seawater	25%
SW-50SL	Seawater	50%

Specimen Preparation

Before mixing, all aggregates were conditioned to a saturated surface-dry state to minimize moisture variability. Concrete was produced using a 50-liter pan mixer in accordance with the Indonesian Standard (SNI 03-3976-1995). Fresh concrete was then cast into cylindrical and prism moulds suitable for the planned mechanical and durability evaluations.

After casting, specimens remained under laboratory conditions for 24 hours before demoulding. Subsequently, all samples were cured in tap water at approximately 23 ± 2°C until the designated testing ages of 7, 28, and 120 days. Maintaining identical curing conditions ensured that the observed differences originated from the concrete mixtures rather than environmental variations.

Experimental Variables

Variable Category	Description
Independent Variables	Type of mixing water (tap water or seawater) and ferronickel slag replacement level (0%, 25%, and 50%).
Controlled Variables	Water–cement ratio, cement type, aggregate proportions, curing conditions, specimen dimensions, and testing standards.
Response Variables	Workability, fresh density, compressive strength, water absorption, chloride permeability, abrasion resistance, and durability performance.

Testing Program

The performance of each concrete mixture was evaluated through a series of standardized laboratory tests covering both fresh and hardened properties. Rather than relying on a single indicator, the researchers combined multiple complementary tests to obtain a comprehensive assessment of structural performance and durability.

Property Evaluated	Testing Standard	Purpose
Slump	ASTM C143	Evaluate workability.
Fresh Density	ASTM C138	Measure fresh concrete density.
Compressive Strength	ASTM C39	Assess structural performance.
Water Absorption	ASTM C642	Evaluate concrete porosity.
Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT)	ASTM C1202	Measure resistance to chloride ion penetration.
Abrasion Resistance	ASTM C944	Evaluate surface durability against mechanical wear.

Data Analysis

Experimental results obtained from each mixture were systematically compared to determine how ferronickel slag replacement and seawater influenced concrete performance throughout different curing periods. Trends in workability, density, compressive strength, water absorption, chloride permeability, and abrasion resistance were interpreted collectively rather than independently. The study also investigated relationships among compressive strength, permeability, and porosity to explain the mechanisms responsible for durability improvement. This integrated analytical approach allowed the researchers to identify the optimum ferronickel slag replacement level while providing mechanistic explanations supported by observed experimental evidence.

5. Key Findings

The experimental investigation demonstrates that the combined utilization of ferronickel slag (SL) and seawater (SW) can significantly influence both the fresh and hardened properties of concrete. Rather than producing uniform improvements across all replacement levels, the results reveal an optimum composition that balances workability, mechanical strength, permeability, and abrasion resistance. The following findings summarize the most significant outcomes reported by the authors.

Finding 1. A 25% Ferronickel Slag Replacement Produced the Best Overall Concrete Performance

One of the most important outcomes of this study is the identification of 25% ferronickel slag replacement as the optimum mixture for balancing workability, compressive strength, and long-term durability. At this replacement level, the concrete consistently demonstrated superior engineering performance compared with both conventional concrete and mixtures containing a higher proportion of slag.

The improvement is primarily attributed to the favorable physical characteristics of ferronickel slag. Its relatively smooth and predominantly spherical particles enhanced aggregate packing, reduced internal voids, and promoted a denser cementitious matrix. Better particle packing not only improved fresh concrete behavior but also reduced pathways for water and chloride penetration, resulting in higher durability. These findings indicate that moderate slag replacement provides greater benefits than excessive replacement, where grading quality and paste–aggregate balance begin to deteriorate.

Finding 2. Seawater Accelerated Early Hydration but Slightly Reduced Long-Term Strength

The experimental results confirm that seawater positively influences the early hydration process of cement. The presence of naturally occurring chloride salts accelerated hydration reactions, enabling faster strength development during the early curing period. This observation supports previous research suggesting that seawater may enhance early-age concrete performance under appropriate conditions.

However, the study also demonstrates that prolonged exposure to salts contained in seawater may slightly reduce compressive strength at later curing ages. The authors associate this behavior with salt-induced microcracking and gradual changes within the hardened cement matrix. Importantly, this long-term reduction was not severe and became considerably less pronounced when ferronickel slag was incorporated into the mixture, indicating that slag effectively compensates for some of the durability challenges associated with seawater concrete.

Finding 3. Ferronickel Slag Significantly Improved Resistance to Chloride Penetration

Rapid Chloride Penetration Test (RCPT) results reveal a substantial improvement in chloride resistance when ferronickel slag was incorporated into the concrete. Among all tested mixtures, the concrete containing 25% ferronickel slag exhibited the lowest electrical charge passed during RCPT, indicating significantly reduced chloride ion permeability.

Lower chloride permeability reflects the formation of a denser internal microstructure with fewer interconnected pores. Because chloride ingress is one of the principal causes of reinforcement corrosion in marine structures, this finding represents a major engineering advantage. The results suggest that ferronickel slag can effectively enhance the durability of concrete exposed to aggressive coastal environments by limiting the transport of harmful ions through the cement matrix.

Finding 4. Improved Microstructure Reduced Water Absorption and Porosity

The water absorption and porosity evaluations consistently indicate that ferronickel slag contributes to a more compact internal concrete structure. Mixtures incorporating moderate slag replacement absorbed less water than conventional concrete, demonstrating reduced pore connectivity and improved impermeability.

This densification is associated with both the physical packing effect of the slag particles and their pozzolanic contribution during cement hydration. As additional hydration products filled internal voids, the concrete became less permeable to moisture and aggressive chemical agents. Reduced porosity is particularly beneficial because it directly contributes to greater durability, improved long-term strength retention, and enhanced resistance against environmental deterioration.

Finding 5. Abrasion Resistance Increased with the Optimum Slag Content

Surface durability testing demonstrated that the incorporation of ferronickel slag significantly improved abrasion resistance. Concrete containing 25% slag replacement exhibited the lowest abrasion weight loss after both 28 and 120 days of curing, indicating greater resistance to mechanical wear.

The improved abrasion performance is closely related to the higher compressive strength and denser internal structure developed in the optimized mixture. Since abrasion resistance is essential for pavements, industrial floors, ports, and marine infrastructure subjected to repeated mechanical loading, the findings suggest that ferronickel slag concrete could provide extended service life while reducing maintenance requirements in demanding environments.

Finding 6. Strong Correlation Exists Between Compressive Strength and Durability Performance

An important scientific observation reported in the study is the close relationship between compressive strength and durability indicators. Concrete mixtures with higher compressive strength generally exhibited lower chloride permeability, reduced porosity, and improved abrasion resistance. These properties did not improve independently but evolved simultaneously as the internal concrete matrix became denser.

This relationship highlights that ferronickel slag contributes not only to strength enhancement but also to comprehensive durability improvement. Rather than functioning merely as an alternative aggregate, the slag actively modifies the internal structure of concrete, producing multiple engineering benefits through a single material substitution. Such findings strengthen the argument for considering ferronickel slag as a sustainable engineering material rather than simply an industrial waste product.

6. Scientific Contribution

This research makes several meaningful contributions to sustainable concrete technology by integrating alternative construction materials with comprehensive durability evaluation. Rather than investigating seawater or ferronickel slag independently, the study systematically examines their combined effects on concrete performance, providing new experimental evidence that supports the development of environmentally responsible construction materials for coastal infrastructure.

Introduces an integrated sustainable concrete system. The study demonstrates the feasibility of simultaneously utilizing seawater as mixing water and ferronickel slag as a partial replacement for natural fine aggregate, offering an alternative approach to conventional concrete production.
Identifies the optimum ferronickel slag replacement level. Experimental evidence indicates that replacing approximately 25% of natural sand with ferronickel slag provides the most balanced combination of workability, mechanical strength, permeability resistance, and abrasion durability.
Expands understanding of durability mechanisms. The research explains how ferronickel slag improves particle packing, reduces pore connectivity, and enhances resistance to chloride ion penetration, thereby improving long-term durability in aggressive environments.
Provides comprehensive durability evaluation. Unlike many previous studies that focused primarily on compressive strength, this investigation combines fresh concrete properties, compressive strength, water absorption, chloride permeability, and abrasion resistance into a unified performance assessment.
Supports circular economy implementation. The study demonstrates that ferronickel slag, traditionally considered an industrial by-product, can function as a high-value engineering material capable of improving concrete performance while reducing industrial waste disposal.
Strengthens sustainable construction research. The findings contribute to ongoing efforts to reduce dependence on freshwater and natural aggregates through the responsible utilization of locally available alternative materials.

7. Industrial Implications

The findings of this study have practical implications for engineers, contractors, infrastructure planners, and material producers seeking more sustainable construction solutions. Although additional field validation is required before large-scale implementation, the experimental evidence suggests several opportunities for engineering practice and industrial innovation.

Supports sustainable concrete production. The combined use of seawater and ferronickel slag can reduce reliance on freshwater and natural river sand, particularly in coastal regions where these resources are readily available.
Encourages industrial waste utilization. Ferronickel slag can be transformed into a valuable construction material, reducing waste accumulation while creating additional economic value for the mining and metallurgical industries.
Improves durability of coastal infrastructure. Lower chloride permeability and higher abrasion resistance indicate that optimized ferronickel slag concrete could be beneficial for marine structures, coastal pavements, ports, seawalls, and harbor facilities exposed to aggressive environments.
Reduces maintenance requirements. Improved resistance to chloride ingress and surface wear may contribute to longer service life and lower maintenance costs throughout the operational life of concrete structures.
Supports environmentally responsible construction. By reducing freshwater consumption and utilizing industrial by-products, the proposed concrete mixture aligns with sustainable construction practices that seek to minimize environmental impacts.
Provides opportunities for local material sourcing. Regions with active ferronickel industries may benefit from shorter transportation distances for aggregate materials, potentially lowering construction costs while improving resource efficiency.
Contributes to resilient infrastructure development. Enhanced durability characteristics may improve the long-term performance of infrastructure subjected to harsh environmental conditions, particularly in coastal and island communities.
Supports future low-carbon construction strategies. Although the study does not directly evaluate carbon emissions, the reuse of industrial by-products and reduced extraction of virgin materials are consistent with broader initiatives toward more sustainable engineering practices.

8. Research Limitations

The authors present a well-designed laboratory investigation; however, several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings. These limitations do not diminish the value of the research but instead identify opportunities for continued investigation and practical validation.

The experimental program was conducted under controlled laboratory conditions, which may not fully represent long-term field performance under variable environmental exposure.
Only two ferronickel slag replacement levels (25% and 50%) were investigated, leaving intermediate replacement ratios unexplored.
The seawater used in the study originated from a specific coastal region; therefore, differences in seawater chemistry from other geographical locations may influence concrete performance.
The curing period extended to 120 days, providing valuable medium-term durability information, although longer-term performance beyond this period remains unknown.
The study focused primarily on plain concrete properties and did not investigate the corrosion behavior of reinforced concrete incorporating steel reinforcement.
Microstructural interpretation relied mainly on engineering performance indicators rather than extensive mineralogical or advanced microscopic characterization after long-term exposure.
Economic feasibility, life-cycle assessment, and large-scale industrial implementation were beyond the scope of the investigation.

9. Future Research Opportunities

Building upon the reported findings, several promising research directions may further strengthen the scientific understanding and engineering application of seawater–ferronickel slag concrete.

Investigate additional ferronickel slag replacement levels to identify the most efficient aggregate proportion for different structural applications.
Evaluate the long-term durability of seawater–slag concrete beyond one year under natural marine exposure conditions.
Study reinforcement corrosion behavior when optimized seawater concrete is combined with conventional steel or corrosion-resistant reinforcement systems.
Examine freeze–thaw resistance, sulfate attack, carbonation, and other durability mechanisms under multiple environmental conditions.
Perform detailed microstructural analyses using advanced techniques such as XRD, FTIR, and micro-CT to better understand hydration products and pore evolution.
Assess the environmental performance of ferronickel slag concrete through life-cycle assessment and carbon footprint analysis.
Investigate compatibility between ferronickel slag and supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash, silica fume, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag.
Develop predictive numerical models for strength development, permeability, and durability based on mixture composition.
Conduct pilot-scale construction projects to validate laboratory findings under real engineering conditions.
Evaluate the economic feasibility and supply chain implications of large-scale utilization in coastal infrastructure projects.

10. Potential for Public Policy Citation (Overton)

This article demonstrates moderate to high potential for citation in public policy documents because it addresses several strategic issues related to sustainable infrastructure, resource conservation, industrial waste utilization, and environmentally responsible construction. While the study remains primarily experimental, its findings directly support policy discussions concerning sustainable material management and resilient infrastructure development.

Potential Policy Relevance

Government infrastructure reports. The findings may support national strategies promoting sustainable construction materials and reduced dependence on natural aggregates.
Industrial resource management policies. The demonstrated reuse of ferronickel slag aligns with circular economy initiatives aimed at increasing industrial waste valorization.
Sustainability and environmental policies. Reduced freshwater consumption and improved utilization of industrial by-products contribute to policies focused on resource efficiency and environmental protection.
Coastal infrastructure development. Agencies responsible for marine infrastructure may consider the findings when developing guidelines for durable concrete in chloride-rich environments.
Construction innovation roadmaps. The study provides experimental evidence supporting future innovation strategies involving alternative construction materials.
Technical standards. Although additional field validation is required before standardization, the reported performance data may inform future revisions of guidelines concerning alternative aggregates and sustainable concrete technology.

Overall, the article possesses meaningful policy relevance because it addresses practical engineering challenges while contributing to broader objectives involving sustainable resource management, industrial waste recycling, and resilient infrastructure. Nevertheless, widespread policy adoption would benefit from additional long-term field validation, economic assessments, and large-scale implementation studies before incorporation into formal technical standards or national construction regulations.

11. Who Should Read This Paper?

This article offers valuable insights for a broad audience involved in sustainable construction, concrete technology, and infrastructure development. Because the study combines material science, structural engineering, and sustainability principles, its findings are relevant to both academic research and engineering practice.

Civil Engineering Researchers
Researchers investigating sustainable concrete, alternative aggregates, durability engineering, and cementitious materials will find comprehensive experimental evidence supporting the combined use of seawater and ferronickel slag.
Materials Scientists
Scientists studying industrial by-product utilization, pozzolanic materials, and microstructural development can benefit from the reported relationships between aggregate characteristics and durability performance.
Structural and Construction Engineers
Engineers responsible for designing and constructing infrastructure in coastal regions may use the findings as scientific references when evaluating alternative concrete materials for aggressive marine environments.
Graduate Students
Master's and doctoral students working on sustainable construction materials, concrete durability, or infrastructure resilience can use this paper as an excellent reference for experimental methodology and durability assessment.
Infrastructure Owners and Contractors
Organizations involved in ports, bridges, seawalls, coastal highways, and marine facilities may gain insight into emerging materials capable of improving long-term durability while reducing environmental impacts.
Mining and Metallurgical Industries
Companies producing ferronickel slag may view the research as evidence supporting higher-value utilization of industrial by-products rather than conventional disposal practices.
Government Agencies and Policymakers
Authorities responsible for sustainable infrastructure development, environmental management, and industrial waste utilization may find the study relevant when developing future resource-efficiency strategies.
Educators
University lecturers teaching concrete technology, construction materials, sustainability, or infrastructure engineering can incorporate this study into classroom discussions on circular economy and innovative construction materials.

12. Final Thoughts

This study provides a comprehensive experimental evaluation of seawater and ferronickel slag as alternative materials for sustainable concrete production. Rather than considering these resources independently, the authors systematically investigated their combined influence on workability, compressive strength, permeability, abrasion resistance, and overall durability. The experimental evidence consistently indicates that a 25% replacement of natural sand with ferronickel slag offers the most balanced performance, improving both mechanical properties and durability while mitigating some of the long-term challenges associated with seawater concrete.

One of the principal strengths of this research lies in its integrated durability assessment. By combining multiple standardized laboratory tests instead of relying solely on compressive strength, the study provides a more complete understanding of how sustainable material substitutions influence concrete performance. Equally important, the research demonstrates that industrial by-products can become valuable engineering resources capable of supporting circular economy objectives without compromising structural quality.

Although further field validation, reinforcement corrosion studies, and long-term exposure testing remain necessary before widespread implementation, this investigation represents a meaningful contribution to sustainable construction research. The findings not only expand scientific knowledge regarding alternative concrete materials but also offer practical guidance for engineers seeking environmentally responsible solutions for future coastal infrastructure. As global demand for resilient and resource-efficient construction continues to grow, studies such as this provide an important foundation for the next generation of sustainable concrete technologies.

Suggested Citation

UNP–Teknomekanik Style

Sandra, N., Caronge, M. A., Sunaryati, J., Kawaai, K., Nsama, W., Arbi, Y., & Arifin, A. S. R. (2025). Durability performances of ferronickel slag aggregate and seawater concrete. Teknomekanik, 8(1), 79–98. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34572

APA (7th Edition)

Sandra, N., Caronge, M. A., Sunaryati, J., Kawaai, K., Nsama, W., Arbi, Y., & Arifin, A. S. R. (2025). Durability performances of ferronickel slag aggregate and seawater concrete. Teknomekanik, 8(1), 79–98. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34572

IEEE Style

N. Sandra, M. A. Caronge, J. Sunaryati, K. Kawaai, W. Nsama, Y. Arbi, and A. S. R. Arifin, "Durability performances of ferronickel slag aggregate and seawater concrete," Teknomekanik, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 79–98, Jun. 2025, doi: 10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34572.

Harvard Style

Sandra, N., Caronge, M.A., Sunaryati, J., Kawaai, K., Nsama, W., Arbi, Y. & Arifin, A.S.R., 2025. Durability performances of ferronickel slag aggregate and seawater concrete. Teknomekanik, 8(1), pp.79–98. Available at: https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34572.

Vancouver Style

Sandra N, Caronge MA, Sunaryati J, Kawaai K, Nsama W, Arbi Y, Arifin ASR. Durability performances of ferronickel slag aggregate and seawater concrete. Teknomekanik. 2025;8(1):79–98. Available from: https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34572

Chicago (Author–Date)

Sandra, Nevy, Muhammad Akbar Caronge, Jati Sunaryati, Keiyu Kawaai, Willick Nsama, Yaumal Arbi, and Ari Syaiful Rahman Arifin. 2025. "Durability Performances of Ferronickel Slag Aggregate and Seawater Concrete." Teknomekanik 8 (1): 79–98. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34572.

MLA (9th Edition)

Sandra, Nevy, et al. "Durability Performances of Ferronickel Slag Aggregate and Seawater Concrete." Teknomekanik, vol. 8, no. 1, 2025, pp. 79–98. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34572.

Editorial Note

Editorial Note: This blog post is an independent scholarly review intended for educational and scientific communication purposes. It summarizes and discusses the published article in the author's own words while providing full attribution to the original publication, consistent with the principles of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license.