How Material Extrusion 3D Printing Shapes the Performance of 17-4PH Stainless Steel: Insights into Microstructure, Sintering, and Mechanical Properties

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Metal additive manufacturing is rapidly transforming modern engineering by enabling the production of complex geometries with reduced material waste and shorter development cycles. Among the available technologies, material extrusion has emerged as a promising and cost-effective approach for manufacturing metal components. However, producing high-quality parts extends well beyond the printing stage. Critical post-processing operations, particularly washing and sintering, strongly influence the final microstructure, density, and mechanical performance. Understanding these relationships is essential for improving component reliability in demanding sectors such as aerospace, automotive, and medical engineering. This study provides valuable experimental evidence on how printing orientation and post-processing conditions affect 17-4PH stainless steel, offering practical insights for researchers and engineers seeking to optimize metal extrusion additive manufacturing.

Bibliographic Information

Item Information
Article Title Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of 17-4PH Stainless Steel Fabricated via Material Extrusion 3D Printing
Authors Dang Long Cao, Van Cuong Nguyen, and Van Nga Tran Thi
Journal Teknomekanik
Volume & Issue Volume 8, Issue 1
Publication Year 2025
Pages 67–78
DOI https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34872
Publisher Universitas Negeri Padang
License Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

1. Research Background

  • Additive manufacturing is reshaping metal component production. Metal 3D printing has become an increasingly important manufacturing technology because it enables the fabrication of complex geometries while reducing material waste, tooling requirements, and production lead time. Material extrusion (ME) has gained attention as a lower-cost alternative to powder-bed fusion technologies, particularly for engineering applications requiring economical production of metal parts.
  • Material extrusion relies on multiple interconnected manufacturing stages. Unlike laser-based metal additive manufacturing, ME employs composite filaments containing metal powder and polymer binders. Producing functional components therefore requires a sequence of printing, washing, and high-temperature sintering, with each stage contributing to the final microstructure and mechanical performance.
  • Post-processing is just as important as the printing process. Washing removes a substantial portion of the polymer binder, while sintering consolidates the remaining metal particles into a dense solid structure. The quality of these post-processing steps directly affects densification, residual porosity, dimensional stability, and mechanical strength, making them essential to the overall manufacturing process.
  • Previous studies have demonstrated significant process sensitivity. Earlier investigations reported that printing orientation, layer thickness, infill strategy, and sintering conditions strongly influence dimensional accuracy, porosity, shrinkage behavior, and mechanical anisotropy. Differences in deposition direction have also been shown to produce noticeable variations in tensile strength due to changes in interlayer bonding.
  • Several knowledge gaps remained unresolved. Although previous research examined selected aspects of material extrusion, many studies evaluated only the final sintered component or focused on a single manufacturing stage. Consequently, there has been limited understanding of how microstructural evolution, elemental composition, and mechanical properties change progressively throughout the complete printing–washing–sintering sequence.
  • The relationship between microstructure and mechanical performance required deeper investigation. Understanding how phase transformation, pore evolution, elemental redistribution, and grain densification influence hardness and tensile behavior is essential for optimizing process parameters and improving the reliability of metal extrusion components.
  • The study addresses an important experimental research gap. Instead of evaluating only finished products, the authors systematically investigate the microstructural evolution of 17-4PH stainless steel throughout every major manufacturing stage using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), hardness testing, and tensile testing. This integrated approach provides a more comprehensive understanding of process–structure–property relationships.
  • The research introduces practical insights for process optimization. By examining different printing orientations together with washing and sintering conditions, the study demonstrates how manufacturing parameters can be optimized to improve densification, reduce residual porosity, and enhance the mechanical performance of material extrusion metal components intended for advanced engineering applications.

2. Research Objectives

  • To investigate how the complete material extrusion manufacturing process influences the microstructural evolution of 17-4PH stainless steel components from the green state through washing and final sintering.
  • To evaluate the influence of printing orientation on the microstructure and mechanical behavior of metal parts fabricated using the Markforged Metal X material extrusion system.
  • To characterize changes in elemental composition throughout the manufacturing process using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS).
  • To examine microstructural morphology, particle bonding, grain evolution, porosity, and densification using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
  • To determine the effects of printing orientation and sintering on hardness and tensile properties of 17-4PH stainless steel specimens.
  • To establish correlations between process parameters, microstructural development, and mechanical performance that can support process optimization in metal material extrusion additive manufacturing.
  • To provide experimental evidence that can improve the structural integrity and manufacturing quality of material extrusion metal components intended for industrial applications.

3. Why This Research Matters

  • Supports wider industrial adoption of metal material extrusion. Understanding how printing orientation and post-processing affect material performance helps manufacturers produce more reliable metal components while reducing costly trial-and-error experimentation.
  • Improves additive manufacturing process optimization. The study provides experimental evidence that can guide engineers in selecting appropriate printing parameters and sintering conditions to achieve improved density, strength, and microstructural quality.
  • Advances engineering knowledge of process–structure–property relationships. By combining SEM, EDS, hardness measurements, and tensile testing, the research demonstrates how manufacturing variables influence material evolution throughout every production stage rather than only the final component.
  • Enhances component quality for demanding engineering sectors. Since 17-4PH stainless steel is widely used in aerospace, automotive, medical devices, and precision engineering, improvements in mechanical performance can directly contribute to safer and more durable products.
  • Promotes more sustainable manufacturing. Optimizing process parameters reduces production defects, minimizes rejected components, and improves material utilization, supporting more resource-efficient manufacturing practices.
  • Strengthens digital manufacturing and Industry 4.0 initiatives. Experimental characterization of additive manufacturing processes provides valuable data for future digital twins, process simulation, predictive quality control, and intelligent manufacturing systems.
  • Provides a valuable reference for future materials research. The findings contribute to ongoing research on metal additive manufacturing by offering a systematic dataset describing microstructural evolution, elemental redistribution, densification, and mechanical performance during material extrusion processing.

4. Research Methodology

  • Research Type

    This study employed an experimental engineering research approach to investigate how processing parameters influence the microstructural evolution and mechanical performance of metal components produced through material extrusion (ME) additive manufacturing. The research combined controlled fabrication, materials characterization, and mechanical testing to establish relationships between manufacturing conditions and the resulting properties of 17-4PH stainless steel.

  • Material Selection

    The investigated material was precipitation-hardening martensitic 17-4PH stainless steel supplied as a composite filament consisting of stainless steel powder dispersed within a polymer binder. This alloy was selected because of its widespread application in aerospace, automotive, transportation, tooling, and medical industries where high strength, corrosion resistance, and heat-treatment capability are required.

  • Additive Manufacturing System

    All specimens were fabricated using the Markforged Metal X material extrusion system. Digital CAD models were converted into STL format and processed through the Eiger software platform before printing. The software controlled material selection, printing orientation, scaling, build position, and manufacturing parameters to ensure consistent specimen production.

  • Printing Parameters

    To isolate the effects of printing orientation and post-processing, all specimens were produced using identical printing settings. The manufacturing conditions included:

    • Material: 17-4PH stainless steel composite filament
    • Post-sinter layer height: 0.125 mm
    • Scale factor: 0.4
    • Fill pattern: Triangular infill
    • Roof layers: 4
    • Floor layers: 4
    • Wall layers: 4
    • Standard tensile specimen geometry based on ASTM E8
  • Manufacturing Workflow

    The experimental procedure consisted of three sequential manufacturing stages:

    1. Green Part Printing – Composite metal-polymer filament was deposited layer by layer to produce the initial component.
    2. Washing (Debinding) – Printed specimens were immersed in heated Opteon SF97 solvent to remove a substantial portion of the polymer binder. Samples were subsequently dried and weighed to verify approximately 4.2% mass reduction before proceeding to sintering.
    3. Sintering – Debound specimens were heat-treated below the melting temperature of the alloy to promote particle bonding, densification, pore reduction, and metallurgical consolidation.

    This workflow enabled the researchers to characterize the material after each manufacturing stage and monitor the progressive evolution of its microstructure and composition.

  • Experimental Variables

    The investigation primarily evaluated the combined influence of:

    • Printing orientation
    • Manufacturing stage (green, washed, and sintered conditions)
    • Microstructural evolution
    • Elemental composition changes
    • Mechanical performance

    Maintaining constant printing parameters allowed the researchers to attribute observed differences primarily to deposition orientation and post-processing effects.

  • Microstructural Characterization

    Cross-sectional microstructures were examined using a JSM-6510LV Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Specimens were sectioned, mounted in epoxy resin, ground using silicon carbide abrasive papers, polished, cleaned with ethanol, and vacuum dried before observation. SEM imaging was used to evaluate grain morphology, particle bonding, pore distribution, layer arrangement, and structural densification throughout the manufacturing process.

  • Elemental Composition Analysis

    Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), integrated with SEM, was employed to quantify elemental composition after printing, washing, and sintering. The analysis monitored changes in iron, chromium, nickel, copper, carbon, oxygen, silicon, and other alloying elements, providing insights into binder removal, oxidation behavior, and metallurgical transformation during processing.

  • Mechanical Testing

    Mechanical performance was evaluated through tensile and hardness testing after fabrication.

    • Tensile testing was conducted using a 300DX Static Hydraulic Universal Testing Machine following ASTM E8-08 requirements.
    • Five specimens were tested for each printing orientation to obtain representative average values.
    • Before testing, all samples were conditioned for 48 hours at approximately 27°C and 60–65% relative humidity.
    • Surface hardness was measured using a Wilson Hardness 574 Rockwell hardness tester.
  • Data Analysis

    Experimental observations from SEM, EDS, tensile testing, and hardness measurements were integrated to establish relationships between manufacturing conditions, elemental redistribution, grain evolution, porosity, densification, and mechanical properties. Comparisons among the green, washed, and sintered states enabled a comprehensive evaluation of how each manufacturing stage contributed to the final performance of the printed components.

5. Key Findings

Post-Processing Fundamentally Transformed the Material Microstructure

One of the most significant findings of this study is that the microstructure of 17-4PH stainless steel changed dramatically throughout the material extrusion manufacturing process. In the green state, the printed component consisted of metal powder particles loosely bonded by a polymer binder. SEM observations revealed numerous interconnected pores, irregular particle contacts, and a rough internal structure that resulted in relatively weak mechanical integrity.

Following washing and especially after sintering, the material experienced substantial densification. The polymer binder was progressively removed, allowing neighboring metal particles to fuse into a much more continuous structure. Grain rearrangement, recrystallization, and particle coalescence produced a smoother and denser microstructure with significantly reduced porosity. Although a small amount of residual porosity remained after sintering, the overall structural integrity improved considerably, demonstrating that post-processing is essential for transforming printed green parts into engineering-grade metallic components.

Sintering Played the Dominant Role in Elemental Redistribution

Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) revealed substantial changes in elemental composition throughout the manufacturing process. The printed green specimens exhibited very high carbon content because the polymer binder occupied a significant proportion of the material. Iron and alloying elements such as chromium, nickel, and copper were therefore present at comparatively lower measured concentrations.

During washing and subsequent sintering, most of the polymer binder was eliminated, producing major compositional changes. Carbon content decreased sharply after sintering, while the relative proportions of iron, chromium, nickel, and copper increased substantially as the metallic matrix became fully consolidated. These compositional changes provide direct experimental evidence that sintering not only densifies the material but also restores the alloy chemistry required for achieving the intended mechanical performance of 17-4PH stainless steel.

Printing Orientation Significantly Influenced Mechanical Performance

The experimental results demonstrated that mechanical properties were not determined solely by the material itself but were also strongly affected by the orientation used during printing. Different deposition directions altered layer bonding characteristics, resulting in variations in hardness and tensile behavior after sintering. This confirms that material extrusion produces anisotropic mechanical behavior similar to many other additive manufacturing technologies.

The findings indicate that selecting an appropriate printing orientation is an important engineering design decision rather than merely a manufacturing preference. Optimizing deposition direction together with post-processing conditions can significantly improve the structural reliability of printed components while minimizing weaknesses associated with interlayer interfaces. Consequently, process planning should consider both geometry and loading conditions when designing components for practical engineering applications.

Mechanical Properties Improved Significantly After Sintering

Mechanical testing demonstrated that sintering was the critical stage responsible for developing the structural strength of the printed specimens. During the green and washed stages, the presence of residual polymer binder and incomplete metallurgical bonding limited the material's ability to withstand mechanical loading. Once sintering was completed, diffusion between neighboring powder particles produced a consolidated metallic network capable of carrying substantially higher loads.

The hardness measurements confirmed this transformation. The sintered specimens exhibited considerably higher hardness than the earlier manufacturing stages because the material became denser and stronger after pore reduction and grain consolidation. Tensile testing further demonstrated that properly sintered components achieved significantly improved mechanical performance suitable for engineering applications. These findings reinforce that successful material extrusion depends not only on accurate printing but also on carefully controlled thermal post-processing.

Residual Porosity Remained Despite Extensive Densification

Although high-temperature sintering substantially improved the internal structure, microscopic examination showed that complete elimination of porosity was not achieved. SEM observations identified residual pores distributed throughout the sintered microstructure, with an average porosity of approximately 0.43% and pore sizes ranging from approximately 1 μm to over 100 μm.

The persistence of these microscopic voids illustrates one of the inherent challenges associated with material extrusion metal additive manufacturing. Even after successful densification, isolated pores may remain because of binder removal, shrinkage, or incomplete particle consolidation. While the remaining porosity was relatively low, further optimization of sintering conditions, printing parameters, or feedstock composition may enable even greater density and improved mechanical reliability for high-performance engineering applications.

Integrated Process Optimization Is Essential for High-Quality Metal Components

Perhaps the most important overall conclusion of the study is that no individual manufacturing stage determines final component quality in isolation. Instead, printing orientation, binder removal, sintering conditions, microstructural evolution, elemental redistribution, and densification collectively influence the mechanical performance of the finished product.

The research demonstrates that optimizing only the printing process is insufficient for producing reliable engineering components. Maximum performance is achieved when every stage of the manufacturing workflow is carefully controlled and evaluated as an integrated system. This process–structure–property relationship provides valuable guidance for engineers seeking to improve the consistency, strength, and reliability of metal components fabricated through material extrusion technology.

6. Scientific Contribution

  • Provides one of the few comprehensive investigations covering the complete material extrusion workflow. Instead of examining only the final sintered product, the research systematically evaluates the green, washed, and sintered conditions, allowing the evolution of material properties to be observed throughout the entire manufacturing process.
  • Advances understanding of process–structure–property relationships. The study clearly demonstrates how printing orientation and post-processing jointly influence grain morphology, elemental composition, porosity, densification, hardness, and tensile behavior.
  • Integrates multiple characterization techniques. Combining SEM, EDS, tensile testing, and Rockwell hardness measurements provides complementary evidence linking microstructural evolution with mechanical performance rather than relying on a single characterization method.
  • Contributes experimental evidence for 17-4PH stainless steel fabricated via material extrusion. Although this alloy has been widely investigated using other additive manufacturing technologies, relatively few studies have comprehensively characterized its behavior throughout every stage of the material extrusion process.
  • Supports manufacturing process optimization. The experimental findings provide practical guidance for selecting printing orientation and post-processing parameters that improve structural integrity and mechanical reliability.
  • Strengthens knowledge for future digital manufacturing research. The generated microstructural and mechanical data can support future modelling, simulation, digital twins, and predictive process optimization within advanced manufacturing environments.

7. Industrial Implications

  • Improves manufacturing quality. The findings provide manufacturers with practical evidence for selecting processing parameters that produce denser microstructures, lower porosity, and stronger components.
  • Supports industrial adoption of metal material extrusion. Understanding how washing and sintering influence material performance reduces uncertainty when implementing material extrusion as an alternative to more expensive metal additive manufacturing technologies.
  • Enhances engineering design. Engineers can incorporate printing orientation into the design process to improve structural performance while minimizing anisotropic weaknesses associated with layer-by-layer fabrication.
  • Benefits aerospace and transportation industries. Since 17-4PH stainless steel is widely used in safety-critical structural components, improved manufacturing knowledge contributes to producing lightweight yet mechanically reliable parts.
  • Supports medical and precision engineering applications. Better control of densification and microstructure improves dimensional stability and mechanical consistency for components requiring high precision and corrosion resistance.
  • Promotes Industry 4.0 manufacturing. Experimental characterization data can be integrated into digital manufacturing platforms for predictive quality control, process monitoring, and intelligent production planning.
  • Reduces production waste. Optimizing process parameters minimizes manufacturing defects, decreases rejected parts, and improves overall resource efficiency throughout production.
  • Supports future process simulation. The reported relationships between manufacturing conditions and material properties provide valuable datasets for validating computational models of sintering, densification, and additive manufacturing.

8. Research Limitations

  • The investigation focused specifically on 17-4PH stainless steel manufactured using a single material extrusion platform. Additional studies involving other alloys and equipment would broaden the applicability of the findings.
  • Printing parameters were intentionally kept constant except for printing orientation and post-processing conditions. Consequently, the influence of other variables such as layer thickness, printing speed, infill density, or nozzle temperature was beyond the scope of this investigation.
  • Microstructural characterization primarily relied on SEM and EDS analyses. Incorporating additional techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), or X-ray computed tomography could provide further insights into crystallographic evolution and three-dimensional pore distribution.
  • Mechanical characterization focused on tensile strength and hardness. Other engineering properties, including fatigue resistance, fracture toughness, wear behavior, and corrosion performance, were not evaluated in this study.
  • Residual porosity remained after sintering, indicating that additional optimization of thermal processing may further improve material density and mechanical performance.
  • The experiments were conducted under controlled laboratory conditions. Industrial-scale production may introduce additional variables related to production volume, thermal uniformity, and manufacturing consistency.

9. Future Research Opportunities

  • Investigate the influence of additional printing parameters such as layer thickness, printing speed, raster strategy, and infill density on microstructural evolution and mechanical properties.
  • Evaluate different sintering temperatures, heating rates, dwell times, and cooling strategies to further reduce residual porosity and improve densification.
  • Extend the investigation to other precipitation-hardening stainless steels and advanced engineering alloys suitable for material extrusion additive manufacturing.
  • Study fatigue behavior, fracture toughness, creep resistance, and wear performance to assess long-term structural reliability under service conditions.
  • Examine corrosion resistance after different post-processing treatments for applications in marine, biomedical, and chemical processing environments.
  • Develop predictive numerical models that simulate densification, shrinkage, grain evolution, and phase transformation during sintering.
  • Integrate real-time process monitoring with machine learning algorithms to predict final mechanical properties from manufacturing data.
  • Employ advanced characterization methods such as X-ray computed tomography and EBSD to obtain three-dimensional information on pore evolution and crystallographic orientation.
  • Compare material extrusion with other metal additive manufacturing technologies, including laser powder bed fusion and binder jetting, using identical materials and testing protocols.
  • Investigate digital twin frameworks capable of optimizing printing and post-processing parameters automatically for industrial-scale production.

10. Potential for Public Policy Citation (Overton)

Although this article focuses primarily on experimental materials engineering rather than policy analysis, it has meaningful potential to support evidence-based policy development in advanced manufacturing and industrial innovation. The findings provide scientific evidence on how process optimization can improve the quality, reliability, and performance of metal additive manufacturing, making the study relevant for organizations developing technical guidance and strategic manufacturing initiatives.

  • Advanced Manufacturing Roadmaps. National manufacturing strategies promoting digital manufacturing and advanced production technologies could cite this research as experimental evidence supporting wider adoption of material extrusion metal additive manufacturing.
  • Industry 4.0 Strategies. The study contributes to the technological foundation required for intelligent manufacturing, process optimization, and digital production systems that form key components of Industry 4.0 initiatives.
  • Engineering Design Guidelines. Organizations preparing best-practice recommendations for metal additive manufacturing may reference the reported relationships between printing orientation, sintering, and mechanical performance when developing technical guidance.
  • Technical Standards Development. Standards organizations involved in additive manufacturing qualification and quality assurance may benefit from the experimental evidence presented on microstructural evolution and post-processing effects.
  • Innovation and Research Policies. Funding agencies and governmental research organizations supporting advanced manufacturing research may cite this work as an example of process optimization research that strengthens industrial competitiveness.
  • Manufacturing Sustainability Policies. Although environmental impacts were not directly evaluated, improved process optimization contributes indirectly to resource efficiency by reducing manufacturing defects, minimizing rejected parts, and improving production quality.

Overall, the article demonstrates moderate policy relevance. Its strongest impact is expected within engineering guidelines, manufacturing innovation strategies, technical standards, and industrial research programs rather than broad public policy documents.

11. Who Should Read This Paper?

  • Researchers working in additive manufacturing and advanced manufacturing technologies.
  • Materials scientists investigating stainless steels and powder metallurgy.
  • Mechanical, manufacturing, and production engineers.
  • Graduate students studying metal additive manufacturing or materials engineering.
  • Engineers responsible for process optimization and quality assurance.
  • Industrial practitioners implementing metal material extrusion systems.
  • Researchers developing digital manufacturing, process simulation, or digital twin technologies.
  • Manufacturers supplying aerospace, automotive, transportation, tooling, and medical components.
  • Educators teaching additive manufacturing, manufacturing processes, and materials science.
  • Government agencies and innovation organizations supporting advanced manufacturing initiatives.

12. Final Thoughts

This study provides a comprehensive experimental investigation into the evolution of 17-4PH stainless steel during material extrusion additive manufacturing. Rather than focusing solely on the final product, the authors systematically examine each major manufacturing stage—from green printing through washing to final sintering—allowing readers to understand how processing conditions influence both microstructural development and mechanical performance. The integration of SEM observations, elemental composition analysis, tensile testing, and hardness measurements produces a coherent explanation of the process–structure–property relationship that governs the quality of material extrusion metal components.

One of the principal strengths of the research lies in its practical orientation. The findings demonstrate that successful metal additive manufacturing depends on optimizing the complete production workflow rather than concentrating exclusively on printing parameters. The reported influence of printing orientation, binder removal, and sintering provides valuable guidance for engineers seeking to improve component reliability while reducing manufacturing defects. Although additional investigations involving different materials, processing parameters, and long-term mechanical properties would further expand current knowledge, this work represents an important contribution to the growing body of research on material extrusion metal additive manufacturing. It offers scientifically robust evidence that can support future research, industrial process optimization, and the broader adoption of cost-effective metal additive manufacturing technologies.

Suggested Citation

Teknomekanik (UNP) Style

Cao, D. L., Nguyen, V. C., & Tran Thi, V. N. (2025). Microstructural and mechanical properties of 17-4PH stainless steel fabricated via material extrusion 3D printing. Teknomekanik, 8(1), 67–78. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34872

APA (7th Edition)

Cao, D. L., Nguyen, V. C., & Tran Thi, V. N. (2025). Microstructural and mechanical properties of 17-4PH stainless steel fabricated via material extrusion 3D printing. Teknomekanik, 8(1), 67–78. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34872

IEEE Style

D. L. Cao, V. C. Nguyen, and V. N. Tran Thi, "Microstructural and mechanical properties of 17-4PH stainless steel fabricated via material extrusion 3D printing," Teknomekanik, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 67–78, 2025, doi:10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34872.

Harvard Style

Cao, D.L., Nguyen, V.C. & Tran Thi, V.N., 2025. Microstructural and mechanical properties of 17-4PH stainless steel fabricated via material extrusion 3D printing. Teknomekanik, 8(1), pp.67–78. Available at: https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34872.

Vancouver Style

Cao DL, Nguyen VC, Tran Thi VN. Microstructural and mechanical properties of 17-4PH stainless steel fabricated via material extrusion 3D printing. Teknomekanik. 2025;8(1):67-78. doi:10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34872.

Chicago (Author–Date)

Cao, Dang Long, Van Cuong Nguyen, and Van Nga Tran Thi. 2025. "Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of 17-4PH Stainless Steel Fabricated via Material Extrusion 3D Printing." Teknomekanik 8 (1): 67–78. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34872.

MLA (9th Edition)

Cao, Dang Long, Van Cuong Nguyen, and Van Nga Tran Thi. "Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of 17-4PH Stainless Steel Fabricated via Material Extrusion 3D Printing." Teknomekanik, vol. 8, no. 1, 2025, pp. 67–78. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.34872.

Editorial Note

Editorial Note: This blog post is an independent scholarly review intended for educational and scientific communication purposes. It summarizes and discusses the published article in the author's own words while providing full attribution to the original publication, consistent with the principles of the CC BY 4.0 license.

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