Turning Palm Kernel Shell Waste into High-Performance Renewable Fuel: Insights from an Innovative Briquette Engineering Study

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The transition toward sustainable energy requires practical technologies capable of transforming abundant agricultural residues into reliable alternative fuels. Among the numerous biomass resources generated worldwide, palm kernel shell waste represents an underutilized by-product with significant energy potential. However, direct combustion of this waste often results in inefficient energy conversion, air pollution, and missed opportunities for value-added utilization. Briquetting technology offers a promising solution by improving fuel density, handling characteristics, and combustion performance. Yet, the quality of biomass briquettes depends strongly on material composition, binder selection, and carbonization conditions. This study investigates how palm kernel shell charcoal combined with a natural damar binder can produce high-quality briquettes suitable for renewable energy applications. The findings provide valuable insights for engineers, energy researchers, biomass industries, and policymakers seeking sustainable strategies to improve energy security while reducing agricultural waste and environmental impacts.

Bibliographic Information

Item Information
Article Title Evaluation and Characterization of Charcoal Briquettes Using Damar Binder for Sustainable Energy
Authors Hendri Nurdin, Waskito, Dani Harmanto, Purwantono, Andre Kurniawan, Yoszi Mingsih Anaperta, and Dori Yuvenda
Journal Teknomekanik
Volume & Issue Volume 8, Issue 1
Publication Year 2025
Pages 24–37
DOI https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.33672
Publisher Universitas Negeri Padang
License Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

1. Research Background

  • Growing demand for sustainable energy. Increasing global energy consumption and the continued dependence on fossil fuels have intensified the search for renewable energy technologies capable of supporting long-term energy security while minimizing environmental impacts.
  • Palm oil industries generate enormous quantities of biomass waste. Palm kernel shells are one of the major solid residues produced during crude palm oil processing. Despite their relatively high energy content, they are often underutilized or directly burned, limiting their economic value and contributing to environmental pollution.
  • Biomass briquetting enhances fuel utilization. Converting loose biomass into compact briquettes improves fuel density, transportation, storage, handling, and combustion performance, making biomass a more practical alternative to conventional solid fuels.
  • Binder selection significantly influences briquette quality. Previous studies have shown that the type and proportion of binder affect combustion characteristics, calorific value, mechanical integrity, ash formation, moisture content, and overall fuel performance.
  • Carbonization temperature is another critical processing variable. The thermal treatment applied before briquetting modifies the physical and chemical properties of biomass charcoal, influencing volatile matter, fixed carbon, pore development, and heating value.
  • Several biomass briquette studies have been reported, but optimization remains incomplete. Earlier investigations evaluated various agricultural residues, binders, and carbonization processes. However, limited information is available regarding the combined influence of carbonization temperature and damar binder concentration on the fuel characteristics of palm kernel shell charcoal briquettes.
  • The study addresses an important engineering knowledge gap. Rather than examining only calorific value, the researchers simultaneously evaluated multiple quality indicators—including moisture content, volatile matter, ash content, and fixed carbon—to identify an optimized briquette formulation suitable for sustainable energy applications.
  • The research contributes to circular bioeconomy development. By transforming agricultural waste into value-added solid fuel, the proposed briquetting approach supports cleaner production, waste valorization, renewable energy utilization, and several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly affordable and clean energy and responsible resource management.

2. Research Objectives

  • To evaluate the quality characteristics of charcoal briquettes produced from palm kernel shell biomass using a natural damar binder.
  • To investigate the influence of different carbonization temperatures on the thermochemical properties of the resulting briquettes.
  • To determine how varying palm kernel shell-to-damar binder ratios affect briquette performance.
  • To experimentally measure the calorific value, moisture content, volatile matter, ash content, and fixed carbon using standardized laboratory testing procedures.
  • To identify the optimum combination of carbonization temperature and binder composition capable of producing high-quality biomass briquettes.
  • To assess the feasibility of utilizing palm kernel shell waste as an environmentally friendly alternative solid fuel for sustainable energy production.

3. Why This Research Matters

  • Supports renewable energy development. The study demonstrates how abundant agricultural residues can be converted into high-value solid biofuels, reducing dependence on fossil energy sources.
  • Promotes sustainable waste utilization. Instead of treating palm kernel shells as industrial waste, the research highlights their potential as valuable biomass resources within a circular economy framework.
  • Improves biomass fuel engineering. Understanding how carbonization temperature and natural binders affect briquette quality provides useful guidance for optimizing biomass fuel production technologies.
  • Enhances industrial biomass processing. Palm oil industries, biomass processors, and renewable energy companies can use the findings to improve briquette manufacturing processes while increasing product quality and commercial value.
  • Contributes to environmental sustainability. Utilizing agricultural waste for renewable fuel can reduce uncontrolled biomass burning, lower environmental pollution, and encourage cleaner energy systems.
  • Supports engineering innovation. The experimental evidence provides engineers with practical design parameters for developing efficient biomass conversion technologies based on locally available renewable resources.
  • Strengthens energy resilience. Developing alternative solid fuels from agricultural waste contributes to diversified energy portfolios, particularly in biomass-rich countries where palm oil production generates substantial renewable feedstocks.
  • Provides evidence for sustainable resource management. The study illustrates how engineering innovation can simultaneously address waste reduction, renewable energy production, and resource efficiency, making it relevant for researchers, industry practitioners, and environmental planners.

4. Research Methodology

  • Research Type

    This study employed a laboratory-based experimental research design to investigate the engineering characteristics of biomass charcoal briquettes produced from palm kernel shell waste. The experiments focused on evaluating how different carbonization temperatures and natural damar binder concentrations influence the thermochemical properties and overall fuel quality of the briquettes. Rather than developing theoretical models, the study relied on controlled laboratory experiments and standardized testing procedures to generate empirical performance data.

  • Raw Materials

    The primary raw material was palm kernel shell waste collected from a crude palm oil processing industry. The biomass was selected because of its relatively high lignin content and favorable calorific value, making it suitable for solid biofuel production. Powdered damar resin was used as the natural binder due to its promising thermochemical characteristics and previously reported effectiveness in biomass briquetting.

  • Experimental Variables

    The investigation examined two main processing variables:

    • Carbonization temperatures of 400°C, 450°C, and 500°C.
    • Three biomass-to-binder ratios consisting of 90:10, 85:15, and 80:20 (palm kernel shell charcoal : damar binder by weight).

    These combinations enabled the researchers to determine the optimum processing conditions for producing high-quality biomass briquettes.

  • Carbonization Process

    Palm kernel shells were first cleaned and naturally dried before undergoing carbonization in a Carbolite CWF 1200 furnace. Each carbonization treatment was maintained for one hour under controlled heating conditions. The resulting charcoal was subsequently crushed and sieved to obtain a uniform particle size of 60 mesh before briquette production.

  • Briquette Manufacturing

    The prepared charcoal powder was mixed with powdered damar binder and water to form a homogeneous mixture. Briquettes were then produced using a manually operated hydraulic press under a molding pressure of 10 MPa. Each briquette had an approximate diameter of 55 mm and height of 29 mm. After molding, the briquettes were oven-dried at 110°C for one hour and subsequently air-dried under sunlight for four days to achieve stable moisture conditions.

  • Testing Standards

    Fuel characterization followed internationally recognized ASTM standards to ensure reliable and reproducible measurements. The calorific value was determined according to ASTM D5865-19, while proximate analysis—including moisture content, volatile matter, ash content, and fixed carbon—was performed following ASTM D7582-15.

  • Laboratory Equipment

    The principal analytical instrument used for fuel evaluation was a LECO AC500 Bomb Calorimeter Analyzer, which directly measured the heating value of each briquette specimen. Supporting equipment included the carbonization furnace, hydraulic briquette press, crushing machine, drying oven, and laboratory weighing instruments.

  • Performance Indicators

    The engineering performance of each briquette formulation was assessed using five key fuel quality indicators:

    • Calorific value (MJ/kg)
    • Moisture content (%)
    • Volatile matter (%)
    • Ash content (%)
    • Fixed carbon (%)

    These parameters collectively determine combustion efficiency, fuel stability, ignition characteristics, and suitability for practical energy applications.

  • Data Analysis

    Experimental results were analyzed through comparative evaluation of the different processing conditions. The measured values were presented using tables and graphs, followed by scientific interpretation supported by previous biomass and briquetting studies. The researchers also compared the resulting briquette characteristics with Indonesian National Standard (SNI) quality requirements to assess their practical applicability as renewable solid fuels.

5. Key Findings

Optimal Briquette Performance Was Achieved at 500°C Carbonization with an 85:15 Biomass-to-Binder Ratio

Among all experimental combinations, briquettes produced from palm kernel shell charcoal carbonized at 500°C and mixed with 85% charcoal and 15% damar binder exhibited the best overall fuel performance. This formulation generated the highest measured calorific value of 30.72 MJ/kg, outperforming all other treatment combinations investigated in the study.

The results indicate that an appropriate balance between carbonization intensity and binder concentration is essential for maximizing energy content. Excessive binder addition reduced the heating value, while insufficient binder negatively affected briquette quality. Consequently, the 85:15 mixture provided the most favorable compromise between structural integrity and combustion efficiency.

Higher Carbonization Temperatures Improved Fuel Quality

A clear relationship was observed between carbonization temperature and briquette performance. Increasing the carbonization temperature from 400°C to 500°C consistently improved the calorific value while reducing moisture content, volatile matter, and ash content. At the same time, fixed carbon content increased steadily with higher carbonization temperatures.

These improvements can be explained by the progressive removal of moisture and volatile compounds during thermal treatment, leaving a greater proportion of carbon-rich material available for combustion. The findings confirm that careful control of carbonization conditions plays a decisive role in enhancing biomass fuel quality.

Damar Binder Demonstrated Strong Potential as a Natural Briquetting Adhesive

The experimental results show that damar resin functions effectively as a natural binder for biomass briquettes. Besides providing sufficient mechanical cohesion during briquette formation, the binder also contributed to producing favorable combustion characteristics without substantially compromising fuel quality.

The study suggests that moderate binder usage enhances briquette stability while maintaining high energy density. However, increasing the binder proportion beyond the optimum level tended to reduce the calorific value, highlighting the importance of selecting an appropriate binder concentration during briquette manufacturing.

Fuel Properties Satisfied Important Quality Requirements for Biomass Briquettes

The optimized briquettes exhibited encouraging thermochemical characteristics, including low moisture content (5.18%), relatively low ash content (2.81%), volatile matter of 32.72%, and fixed carbon reaching 57.90%. These characteristics indicate stable combustion behavior and good energy conversion potential.

Furthermore, the measured moisture content remained below the maximum limit specified by the Indonesian National Standard (SNI), demonstrating that the developed briquettes satisfy important quality requirements for practical renewable energy utilization.

Palm Kernel Shell Briquettes Compared Favorably with Other Biomass Fuels

The researchers compared their results with several previously reported biomass briquettes. The optimized palm kernel shell briquettes produced a higher calorific value than various coffee wood charcoal briquettes and several earlier palm shell briquette studies, although they remained below the heating value of anthracite coal.

These comparisons demonstrate that palm kernel shell biomass can serve as a competitive renewable solid fuel capable of approaching the performance of conventional fossil fuels while offering substantial environmental advantages through renewable resource utilization.

The Study Demonstrates an Effective Waste-to-Energy Engineering Strategy

Beyond the numerical improvements in fuel characteristics, the research illustrates an effective engineering pathway for converting agricultural waste into value-added renewable energy products. Instead of allowing palm kernel shells to remain underutilized industrial residues, the proposed briquetting process transforms them into practical solid fuels suitable for domestic and industrial applications.

This integrated approach supports sustainable biomass utilization by combining waste valorization, renewable energy production, and environmentally responsible resource management. The findings reinforce the potential of engineering innovation to contribute simultaneously to energy security and circular economy development.

6. Scientific Contribution

  • Introduces an optimized briquetting approach for palm kernel shell biomass. The study demonstrates how the combined optimization of carbonization temperature and natural damar binder concentration can significantly improve the thermochemical performance of biomass briquettes.
  • Expands knowledge on natural biomass binders. While many previous studies have investigated starch- or clay-based binders, this research provides additional experimental evidence supporting damar resin as an effective natural adhesive capable of producing high-quality charcoal briquettes.
  • Provides comprehensive fuel characterization. Rather than evaluating only calorific value, the research simultaneously analyzes moisture content, volatile matter, ash content, and fixed carbon, offering a more complete understanding of briquette quality.
  • Establishes experimentally validated processing parameters. The investigation identifies an optimum production condition (500°C carbonization and an 85:15 charcoal-to-damar ratio), providing practical engineering guidance for biomass briquette manufacturing.
  • Supports waste-to-energy engineering. The research contributes to biomass conversion technologies by demonstrating an effective method for transforming palm oil processing waste into value-added renewable fuel.
  • Bridges laboratory research and practical application. By comparing the resulting briquette properties with established fuel quality standards, the study strengthens the practical relevance of biomass briquetting for sustainable energy development.

7. Industrial Implications

  • Supports palm oil processing industries. Palm oil mills can convert abundant palm kernel shell waste into commercially valuable briquettes, reducing waste disposal while creating additional revenue opportunities.
  • Improves renewable fuel production. The optimized production parameters provide manufacturers with practical guidance for producing biomass briquettes that exhibit higher calorific values and improved combustion characteristics.
  • Enhances biomass processing efficiency. Understanding the influence of carbonization temperature and binder concentration enables producers to optimize manufacturing processes while maintaining consistent product quality.
  • Supports sustainable manufacturing. Utilizing industrial biomass residues contributes to cleaner production systems by reducing waste accumulation and encouraging resource recovery within manufacturing operations.
  • Promotes cleaner industrial energy. Biomass briquettes can partially replace conventional solid fossil fuels in suitable heating applications, potentially reducing greenhouse gas emissions associated with energy production.
  • Encourages local bioenergy industries. Regions with significant palm oil production can utilize locally available biomass resources to strengthen regional energy resilience and stimulate green economic development.
  • Supports circular economy implementation. The proposed briquetting process demonstrates how agricultural residues can be reintroduced into productive industrial value chains instead of becoming environmental burdens.
  • Provides engineering design references. Engineers involved in biomass energy systems can use the reported processing parameters as baseline information for scaling laboratory production toward pilot-scale or industrial briquetting facilities.

8. Research Limitations

  • The investigation was conducted under controlled laboratory conditions. Industrial-scale production may introduce additional operational variables that were beyond the scope of this study.
  • Only three carbonization temperatures were evaluated. Additional temperature ranges could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the carbonization process.
  • The study focused exclusively on damar resin as the binder. Comparisons with other natural or industrial binders were not included.
  • Fuel characterization concentrated primarily on proximate analysis and calorific value. Other important engineering properties, such as compressive strength, abrasion resistance, ignition time, combustion duration, and emission characteristics, were not experimentally evaluated.
  • The experiments used a single biomass feedstock. Other agricultural residues may exhibit different thermochemical behaviors under similar processing conditions.
  • Long-term storage stability and environmental durability of the produced briquettes were not investigated.
  • Economic feasibility, production cost analysis, and life-cycle assessment were outside the objectives of the present study.

9. Future Research Opportunities

  1. Evaluate broader carbonization temperature ranges to identify the maximum achievable fuel performance.
  2. Compare damar resin with other natural and biodegradable binders to determine the most efficient briquetting material.
  3. Investigate additional biomass feedstocks or hybrid biomass mixtures for improving briquette quality.
  4. Study the mechanical properties of the briquettes, including compressive strength, impact resistance, and durability during transportation.
  5. Perform combustion emission analyses to quantify particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and greenhouse gas emissions.
  6. Conduct long-term storage and weathering experiments to evaluate product stability under different environmental conditions.
  7. Develop pilot-scale and industrial-scale production systems to validate laboratory findings under commercial operating conditions.
  8. Perform techno-economic and life-cycle assessments to determine commercial feasibility and environmental sustainability.
  9. Investigate machine learning or optimization techniques for predicting optimal briquette manufacturing parameters.
  10. Assess the suitability of the developed briquettes for domestic heating, industrial boilers, biomass gasification, and co-firing applications.

10. Potential for Public Policy Citation (Overton)

This article demonstrates moderate to high potential for future citation in public policy documents because it addresses renewable energy production, agricultural waste utilization, and sustainable resource management—three strategic priorities that align with national and international sustainability agendas. Although the study is primarily experimental, its findings provide evidence that can inform biomass energy development programs and circular economy initiatives.

Potential policy relevance includes:

  • Government strategies promoting renewable and low-carbon energy systems.
  • National biomass utilization roadmaps and bioenergy development plans.
  • Policies encouraging sustainable management of palm oil industry residues.
  • Circular economy frameworks emphasizing industrial waste valorization.
  • Technical guidance for community-based biomass energy production.
  • Regional energy diversification strategies in biomass-rich countries.
  • Research and innovation policies supporting renewable energy technologies.

Because the research focuses on laboratory-scale experimental evaluation rather than policy analysis or techno-economic assessment, it is less likely to be cited directly in regulatory standards. Nevertheless, it provides valuable scientific evidence that could support future policy formulation concerning biomass utilization and sustainable energy development.

11. Who Should Read This Paper?

  • Researchers working in renewable energy and biomass conversion technologies.
  • Mechanical, energy, and chemical engineers involved in biofuel development.
  • Graduate students studying sustainable energy, thermochemical conversion, or biomass engineering.
  • Palm oil industry practitioners seeking value-added utilization of agricultural residues.
  • Manufacturers of biomass briquettes and solid biofuels.
  • Environmental scientists interested in waste valorization and circular economy strategies.
  • Government agencies responsible for renewable energy and sustainable resource management.
  • Policymakers developing biomass energy, waste management, and climate mitigation programs.
  • Innovation managers exploring commercially viable biomass technologies.
  • Educators teaching renewable energy engineering, sustainable manufacturing, and bioenergy systems.

12. Final Thoughts

The growing demand for cleaner and more sustainable energy has intensified interest in technologies capable of converting agricultural residues into valuable energy resources. This study provides a well-structured experimental investigation demonstrating that palm kernel shell waste, when properly carbonized and combined with a natural damar binder, can be transformed into high-quality biomass briquettes with promising fuel characteristics. Rather than focusing solely on calorific value, the researchers evaluated multiple thermochemical properties that collectively determine fuel quality, providing a comprehensive assessment of briquette performance.

One of the study's principal strengths lies in its systematic optimization of two important manufacturing variables: carbonization temperature and binder composition. The experimental results clearly show that careful control of these parameters significantly influences heating value, moisture content, volatile matter, ash content, and fixed carbon. Identifying an optimum production condition of 500°C carbonization with an 85:15 palm kernel shell charcoal-to-damar binder ratio offers practical guidance for engineers and biomass producers seeking to improve renewable solid fuel quality.

Beyond its technical findings, the research contributes to broader sustainability goals by illustrating how industrial biomass waste can be converted into value-added energy products. Such waste-to-energy approaches support circular economy principles, reduce dependence on fossil fuels, and encourage more efficient utilization of agricultural resources. Although further investigations involving combustion emissions, mechanical durability, economic feasibility, and industrial-scale implementation are still required, the present study establishes a solid scientific foundation for future research and technology development.

Overall, this article represents a valuable contribution to biomass engineering and renewable energy research. Its experimentally validated findings provide useful insights for researchers, engineers, industrial practitioners, and policymakers working to develop cleaner, more sustainable energy systems through innovative biomass utilization technologies.

Suggested Citation

Teknomekanik (UNP) Style

Nurdin, H., Waskito, Harmanto, D., Purwantono, Kurniawan, A., Anaperta, Y. M., & Yuvenda, D. (2025). Evaluation and characterization of charcoal briquettes using damar binder for sustainable energy. Teknomekanik, 8(1), 24–37. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.33672

APA (7th Edition)

Nurdin, H., Waskito, Harmanto, D., Purwantono, Kurniawan, A., Anaperta, Y. M., & Yuvenda, D. (2025). Evaluation and characterization of charcoal briquettes using damar binder for sustainable energy. Teknomekanik, 8(1), 24–37. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.33672

IEEE Style

H. Nurdin, Waskito, D. Harmanto, Purwantono, A. Kurniawan, Y. M. Anaperta, and D. Yuvenda, "Evaluation and characterization of charcoal briquettes using damar binder for sustainable energy," Teknomekanik, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 24–37, Jun. 2025, doi:10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.33672.

Harvard Style

Nurdin, H., Waskito, Harmanto, D., Purwantono, Kurniawan, A., Anaperta, Y.M. & Yuvenda, D., 2025. Evaluation and characterization of charcoal briquettes using damar binder for sustainable energy. Teknomekanik, 8(1), pp.24–37. Available at: https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.33672.

Vancouver Style

Nurdin H, Waskito, Harmanto D, Purwantono, Kurniawan A, Anaperta YM, Yuvenda D. Evaluation and characterization of charcoal briquettes using damar binder for sustainable energy. Teknomekanik. 2025;8(1):24-37. doi:10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.33672.

Chicago (Author–Date)

Nurdin, Hendri, Waskito, Dani Harmanto, Purwantono, Andre Kurniawan, Yoszi Mingsih Anaperta, and Dori Yuvenda. 2025. "Evaluation and Characterization of Charcoal Briquettes Using Damar Binder for Sustainable Energy." Teknomekanik 8 (1): 24–37. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.33672.

MLA (9th Edition)

Nurdin, Hendri, et al. "Evaluation and Characterization of Charcoal Briquettes Using Damar Binder for Sustainable Energy." Teknomekanik, vol. 8, no. 1, 2025, pp. 24–37. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v8i1.33672.

Editorial Note

Editorial Note: This blog post is an independent scholarly review intended for educational and scientific communication purposes. It summarizes and discusses the published article in the author's own words while providing full attribution to the original publication, consistent with the principles of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license.

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