How Long-Term Rainfall Trends in Myanmar Can Shape Climate-Resilient Infrastructure and Water Resource Management

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Climate change is altering precipitation patterns worldwide, creating significant challenges for infrastructure planning, water resource management, agriculture, and disaster risk reduction. In countries with diverse climatic conditions such as Myanmar, understanding how rainfall extremes have evolved over recent decades is essential for designing resilient engineering systems and supporting sustainable development. While numerous climate studies have investigated average rainfall variability, fewer have comprehensively examined long-term changes in extreme precipitation across the entire country using extensive observational records. This research addresses that need by analyzing multiple precipitation frequency and intensity indices derived from long-term meteorological observations. The findings provide valuable evidence for engineers, hydrologists, climate scientists, and policymakers seeking to strengthen adaptation strategies against increasing risks associated with floods, droughts, and changing rainfall regimes.

Bibliographic Information

Item Information
Article Title Analysis of trends and variability in frequency and intensity indices of precipitation over Myanmar during 1985–2020
Authors Min Khaing, Win Win Zin, Zin Mar Lar Tin San, Soe Thiha, and Manish Shrestha
Journal Innovation in Engineering
Volume & Issue Volume 2, Issue 2
Publication Year 2025
Pages 73–90
DOI https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.33
Publisher Researcher and Lecturer Society
License Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

1. Research Background

  • Extreme precipitation is becoming an increasingly important engineering concern. Changes in rainfall frequency and intensity directly influence the design, operation, and long-term performance of civil infrastructure such as drainage systems, transportation networks, reservoirs, irrigation facilities, and flood protection structures.
  • Myanmar experiences highly diverse climatic conditions. Influenced by the Southwest Monsoon, tropical cyclones, complex topography, and extensive coastlines, the country exhibits substantial spatial differences in rainfall characteristics across its physiographic regions.
  • Recent climate change has altered precipitation behaviour. Previous studies have reported shifts in rainfall timing, increasing climate variability, and more frequent extreme weather events, creating additional challenges for infrastructure planning, agricultural production, and water resource management.
  • Myanmar is highly vulnerable to climate-related hazards. The country has experienced repeated floods, droughts, and other hydro-meteorological disasters that threaten communities, ecosystems, and economic development, emphasizing the importance of understanding long-term precipitation dynamics.
  • Previous investigations remain geographically limited. Earlier studies often analysed only a small number of meteorological stations or focused primarily on seasonal and annual rainfall trends, leaving considerable uncertainty regarding nationwide patterns of extreme precipitation indices.
  • Limited long-term observational coverage has constrained previous analyses. Sparse station networks and uneven spatial distribution have reduced the ability of earlier research to capture regional variability in precipitation extremes across Myanmar's diverse landscapes.
  • The study addresses an important scientific gap. By utilizing long-term daily precipitation observations from 38 meteorological stations covering the period 1985–2020, the research provides one of the most comprehensive assessments of precipitation frequency and intensity indices across Myanmar.
  • Internationally recognized climate indices were adopted. The analysis follows the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices (ETCCDI) methodology, enabling standardized assessment and facilitating comparison with studies conducted in other countries and climatic regions.
  • The research combines temporal and spatial analyses. Beyond detecting long-term trends, the study investigates how precipitation extremes vary among Myanmar's eight physiographic regions, providing valuable geographical insight for regional adaptation planning.
  • The findings provide practical evidence for climate adaptation. Understanding where rainfall extremes are increasing or decreasing can support engineers, planners, and policymakers in developing infrastructure and water management strategies that are better aligned with evolving climatic conditions.

2. Research Objectives

  • To investigate long-term trends in extreme precipitation frequency and intensity across Myanmar using daily observational records collected between 1985 and 2020.
  • To calculate selected precipitation extreme indices recommended by the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices (ETCCDI) using the RClimDex software.
  • To identify statistically significant increasing and decreasing trends through the Mann–Kendall trend test and Sen's slope estimator.
  • To evaluate spatial variability in precipitation extremes among Myanmar's eight physiographic regions.
  • To improve scientific understanding of changing rainfall characteristics that influence floods, droughts, and water resource availability.
  • To provide evidence that supports climate-resilient engineering, infrastructure planning, disaster risk reduction, and sustainable water resource management.

3. Why This Research Matters

  • Supports climate-resilient infrastructure. Long-term knowledge of precipitation extremes enables engineers to design drainage systems, bridges, reservoirs, highways, and urban infrastructure that are more resilient to changing rainfall patterns.
  • Improves water resource engineering. Understanding regional rainfall variability assists planners in managing reservoirs, irrigation systems, watershed conservation, and flood control infrastructure more effectively.
  • Strengthens disaster risk reduction. Detecting areas with increasing rainfall intensity or longer dry periods provides valuable information for improving flood preparedness, drought mitigation, and emergency planning.
  • Provides evidence for climate adaptation. Regional analyses of precipitation trends help governments and local authorities develop adaptation strategies that address location-specific climate risks rather than relying on generalized national averages.
  • Advances climate science. Applying internationally standardized precipitation indices contributes to a broader understanding of climate variability and facilitates comparison between Myanmar and other regions experiencing similar climatic changes.
  • Benefits agricultural sustainability. Changes in rainfall frequency and intensity directly affect crop production, planting schedules, irrigation demand, and long-term food security, making precipitation trend analysis highly relevant for agricultural planning.
  • Enhances engineering decision-making. Reliable long-term climate observations provide essential baseline information for engineers performing hydrological analysis, infrastructure risk assessment, and climate-sensitive design.
  • Supports sustainable development. By identifying evolving precipitation patterns, the research contributes valuable scientific evidence that can guide sustainable land use planning, environmental management, and resilient national development initiatives.

4. Research Methodology

  • Research Design

    This study adopted a quantitative climatological research approach to evaluate long-term changes in extreme precipitation across Myanmar. The investigation focused on detecting temporal trends and spatial variability in rainfall characteristics using internationally recognized climate indices and non-parametric statistical methods. The methodology integrates climate data processing, quality control, trend detection, and regional comparison to provide a comprehensive assessment of precipitation extremes.

  • Study Area

    The research covered the entire territory of Myanmar, extending approximately between latitudes 9°32′N and 28°31′N and longitudes 92°10′E and 101°11′E. Owing to its complex topography and monsoon climate, Myanmar was divided into eight physiographic regions, namely the Ayeyarwady Delta, Central Dry Zone, Eastern Hilly, Northern Hilly, Rakhine Coastal, Sittaung and Yangon Deltaic, Southern Coastal, and Western Hilly regions. These regions represent diverse climatic environments ranging from arid inland areas to extremely wet coastal zones.

  • Meteorological Data

    Daily precipitation observations collected from 38 meteorological stations distributed across the eight physiographic regions were analyzed. The dataset spans a continuous 36-year period from 1985 to 2020 and was obtained from the Department of Meteorology and Hydrology (DMH), Myanmar. The selected stations provide representative spatial coverage of the country's major climatic zones and enable comprehensive analysis of regional precipitation variability.

  • Data Quality Control

    Before statistical analysis, the precipitation records underwent a comprehensive quality control procedure. Raw datasets were examined to identify missing values, abnormal observations, inconsistent data types, outliers, and recording errors. Initial inspection was conducted using Microsoft Excel, followed by additional quality assessment within the RClimDex software to ensure that the climate indices were calculated from reliable observational records.

  • Extreme Precipitation Indices

    Nine precipitation indices recommended by the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Monitoring Indices (ETCCDMI) were selected for analysis. These consisted of three frequency indices and six intensity indices that collectively describe changes in rainfall occurrence, persistence, and magnitude.

    The frequency indices included Consecutive Dry Days (CDD), Consecutive Wet Days (CWD), and the Number of Heavy Precipitation Days (Rtmm). The intensity indices comprised Annual Total Wet-Day Precipitation (PRCPTOT), Simple Daily Intensity Index (SDII), Maximum One-Day Precipitation (RX1day), Maximum Five-Day Precipitation (RX5day), Very Wet Days (R95p), and Extremely Wet Days (R99p).

  • Climate Index Calculation

    All precipitation indices were computed using RClimDex version 1.1, which follows internationally standardized procedures for climate extreme analysis. Employing this software ensures methodological consistency with numerous previous regional and global climate studies while facilitating comparison with similar investigations conducted in other countries.

  • Trend Detection Methods

    Long-term temporal trends were evaluated using the non-parametric Mann–Kendall test. This statistical method identifies monotonic increasing or decreasing trends without requiring normally distributed datasets, making it particularly suitable for hydro-meteorological time series that often exhibit non-normal characteristics.

    To quantify the magnitude of detected trends, Sen's slope estimator was applied. Positive slope values indicate increasing precipitation indices over time, whereas negative values represent declining trends. Statistical significance was assessed at the 95% confidence level (p < 0.05).

  • Spatial Analysis

    Spatial distribution maps were developed to illustrate regional variations in annual precipitation, rainy-season precipitation, and precipitation trend patterns across Myanmar. The analysis enabled direct comparison of rainfall characteristics among the eight physiographic regions and facilitated identification of locations exhibiting stronger climatic changes.

  • Comparative Regional Assessment

    Trend results obtained for individual stations were synthesized according to physiographic regions to evaluate similarities and differences in precipitation behaviour across Myanmar. This regional perspective provides valuable insight into localized climate variability and supports geographically targeted adaptation planning.

  • Overall Analytical Workflow

    The methodological framework consisted of sequential stages including precipitation data collection, quality control, computation of precipitation extreme indices using RClimDex, trend detection using the Mann–Kendall and Sen's slope methods, spatial visualization of precipitation characteristics, and comparative interpretation of temporal and regional climate variability across Myanmar.

5. Key Findings

Long-Term Rainfall Patterns Vary Considerably Across Myanmar

Analysis of 36 years of observational data revealed pronounced spatial differences in annual precipitation among Myanmar's eight physiographic regions. Coastal regions consistently received substantially higher rainfall than inland areas, whereas the Central Dry Zone remained the driest region throughout the study period. These findings demonstrate that Myanmar's precipitation regime is strongly influenced by geographical setting and regional climatic conditions rather than following a uniform national pattern.

The spatial precipitation maps further showed that rainfall distribution closely reflects the country's topography. Extremely high annual and rainy-season precipitation occurred primarily along the Rakhine and Southern Coastal regions, while relatively low precipitation characterized the Central Dry Zone and parts of the Eastern Hilly Region. This pronounced geographical variability highlights the importance of adopting region-specific approaches for water resource engineering and climate adaptation planning.

Consecutive Dry Days Display Mixed but Regionally Distinct Trends

The analysis of Consecutive Dry Days (CDD) indicated that rainfall persistence has changed differently across Myanmar. Increasing dry periods were observed at many stations within the Northern Hilly, Western Hilly, Rakhine Coastal, and Sittaung–Yangon Deltaic regions, whereas other regions exhibited mixed behaviour with both increasing and decreasing trends.

Among all meteorological stations, Hkamti recorded a statistically significant increase in consecutive dry days. Although significant decreases were generally absent, the observed increase in dry spells suggests that some regions may become increasingly vulnerable to seasonal water shortages and drought-related impacts despite continuing to experience abundant annual rainfall.

Consecutive Wet Days Show Declining Tendencies in Several Regions

The investigation of Consecutive Wet Days (CWD) revealed a predominance of decreasing trends across several physiographic regions, particularly within the Western Hilly, Eastern Hilly, Northern Hilly, and Rakhine Coastal regions. This indicates that rainfall events may become less continuous even where total precipitation remains relatively high.

Several stations nevertheless experienced statistically significant increases in wet-day duration, including Hinthada, Hmawbi, and Myeik. Conversely, Myitkyina, Sittwe, and Falam exhibited significant decreases. These contrasting regional responses emphasize that climate change influences rainfall persistence differently across Myanmar's diverse climatic environments.

Heavy Rainfall Events Are Becoming More Frequent in Many Areas

The Number of Heavy Precipitation Days (Rtmm) displayed predominantly increasing tendencies throughout much of Myanmar. The Central Dry Zone, Western Hilly Region, Sittaung and Yangon Deltaic Region, and several stations within the Eastern Hilly Region showed increasing numbers of heavy rainfall events over the study period.

Statistically significant increases were identified at Aunglan, Myitkyina, and Myeik stations. These results suggest that although annual rainfall may not increase uniformly across the country, the occurrence of intense rainfall events is becoming more common in several regions, increasing the potential for localized flooding and associated infrastructure challenges.

Intensity Indices Reveal Increasing Extreme Rainfall in Many Locations

Beyond rainfall frequency, the intensity-related indices demonstrated that numerous stations experienced increasing trends in annual wet-day precipitation, daily rainfall intensity, maximum one-day rainfall, maximum five-day rainfall, very wet days, and extremely wet days. Although not every trend reached statistical significance, the overall spatial pattern indicates a gradual shift toward more intense precipitation events across substantial portions of Myanmar.

The Western Hilly Region, in particular, exhibited increasing tendencies in extremely wet days, while other regions displayed mixed responses depending on local climatic characteristics. These findings indicate that rainfall intensity is evolving differently across physiographic regions, reinforcing the need for localized engineering assessments rather than relying solely on national averages.

Regional Climate Variability Highlights the Need for Localized Adaptation Strategies

One of the most important outcomes of the study is the recognition that precipitation changes cannot be generalized across Myanmar. Different regions simultaneously exhibit increasing dry periods, decreasing wet-day persistence, and increasing heavy rainfall events, illustrating the complexity of climate variability within a single country.

The research therefore demonstrates that climate adaptation measures should be tailored to regional conditions. Infrastructure planning, flood mitigation, drought preparedness, agricultural management, and water resource engineering will benefit from incorporating localized precipitation trends rather than applying uniform national planning assumptions.

6. Scientific Contribution

  • Provides one of the most comprehensive observational assessments of extreme precipitation in Myanmar. By analyzing daily precipitation records from 38 meteorological stations over a continuous 36-year period (1985–2020), the study offers broader spatial coverage than many previous investigations conducted in the country.
  • Expands scientific understanding of regional climate variability. Rather than treating Myanmar as a single climatic entity, the research evaluates precipitation behaviour across eight physiographic regions, revealing substantial geographical differences in rainfall frequency and intensity.
  • Applies internationally standardized climate indices. The use of precipitation indices recommended by the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Monitoring Indices (ETCCDMI) ensures methodological consistency with global climate research and facilitates comparison with studies conducted in other regions.
  • Combines multiple precipitation frequency and intensity indicators. Evaluating nine complementary indices provides a more comprehensive representation of precipitation extremes than relying solely on annual rainfall totals or seasonal averages.
  • Employs robust non-parametric statistical techniques. The integration of the Mann–Kendall trend test and Sen's slope estimator enables reliable identification of both the direction and magnitude of long-term precipitation trends while avoiding assumptions of normal data distribution.
  • Strengthens the scientific basis for climate adaptation research. The study provides updated observational evidence that improves understanding of evolving precipitation characteristics relevant to climate change impact assessments in Southeast Asia.
  • Contributes valuable baseline information for future climate modelling. The long-term observational dataset and trend analysis can support calibration, verification, and evaluation of regional climate models used for future precipitation projections.
  • Bridges climatology and engineering applications. By interpreting precipitation trends in relation to flood risk, drought occurrence, and water resource management, the research extends beyond climatological observation to provide information relevant to civil and environmental engineering practice.

7. Industrial Implications

  • Supports climate-resilient infrastructure design. Engineers responsible for highways, bridges, drainage systems, reservoirs, dams, and urban infrastructure can incorporate observed changes in precipitation intensity into future design standards and risk assessments.
  • Improves flood management planning. Regions experiencing increasing heavy rainfall events may require larger drainage capacities, upgraded flood-control structures, and more effective stormwater management strategies to reduce future flood impacts.
  • Enhances drought preparedness. Increasing trends in consecutive dry days within several regions provide valuable information for irrigation planning, reservoir operation, groundwater management, and agricultural water allocation.
  • Strengthens water resource engineering. Updated knowledge of regional precipitation variability supports more accurate hydrological analysis, watershed management, reservoir design, and integrated water resource planning.
  • Supports infrastructure maintenance and asset management. Understanding changing rainfall behaviour enables infrastructure owners to anticipate climate-related deterioration, improve maintenance scheduling, and reduce long-term operational risks.
  • Provides valuable input for environmental engineering. Changes in rainfall intensity influence erosion, sediment transport, slope stability, and watershed conservation, making precipitation trend information useful for environmental protection projects.
  • Contributes to digital engineering and climate data analytics. The use of standardized climate indices, statistical trend analysis, and spatial mapping demonstrates how long-term environmental datasets can support evidence-based engineering decision-making within digital planning environments.
  • Supports sustainable infrastructure investment. Incorporating long-term precipitation trends into planning processes allows governments and infrastructure agencies to prioritize resilient investments that better withstand future climatic uncertainty.

8. Research Limitations

  • The analysis relies exclusively on observational records collected from 38 meteorological stations. Although these stations provide broad geographical coverage, additional observation sites could further improve spatial representation, particularly in regions with complex terrain.
  • The investigation evaluates historical precipitation trends between 1985 and 2020 and therefore does not include future climate projections or scenario-based simulations of future rainfall conditions.
  • Only precipitation indices were examined in this study. Other climate variables that influence hydrological systems, including temperature, evapotranspiration, humidity, and wind patterns, were beyond the scope of the present research.
  • Trend detection was performed using the Mann–Kendall and Sen's slope methods, which identify monotonic changes over time. More complex non-linear climate behaviour or abrupt regime shifts may require complementary statistical approaches in future investigations.
  • The study focuses primarily on identifying precipitation trends rather than evaluating their direct socioeconomic, agricultural, ecological, or engineering consequences through integrated impact assessment models.
  • Although regional variability was thoroughly investigated, the research does not develop predictive models for future precipitation extremes or estimate future flood and drought probabilities under changing climate conditions.

9. Future Research Opportunities

  • Extend the analysis by incorporating more recent precipitation observations to evaluate whether the identified trends continue beyond 2020.
  • Integrate temperature, evapotranspiration, humidity, and other hydro-climatic variables to develop a more comprehensive understanding of climate variability across Myanmar.
  • Combine observational trend analysis with regional climate model projections to estimate future changes in extreme precipitation under different greenhouse gas emission scenarios.
  • Investigate the hydrological impacts of changing precipitation patterns on river discharge, groundwater recharge, reservoir operation, and watershed sustainability.
  • Assess how observed changes in rainfall extremes influence flood hazards, drought occurrence, agricultural productivity, and food security at regional and national scales.
  • Apply Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and satellite-based precipitation products to improve spatial representation in areas with limited meteorological observations.
  • Compare Myanmar's precipitation trends with neighbouring countries in Southeast Asia to better understand regional climate variability and transboundary climatic influences.
  • Develop machine learning and artificial intelligence models capable of predicting future precipitation extremes using long-term observational datasets and climate predictors.
  • Evaluate the performance of different statistical techniques for detecting non-linear climate trends, abrupt shifts, and extreme rainfall behaviour under changing environmental conditions.
  • Translate precipitation trend analyses into engineering design guidance for resilient infrastructure, urban drainage systems, flood-control facilities, and integrated climate adaptation strategies.

10. Potential for Public Policy Citation (Overton)

This article demonstrates a high potential for public policy citation because it provides long-term observational evidence on changing precipitation characteristics that directly influence climate adaptation, disaster risk reduction, and infrastructure planning. Rather than proposing a new engineering technology, the study delivers scientifically validated climate information that can support evidence-based policy development in multiple sectors.

The analysis identifies regional differences in precipitation frequency and intensity across Myanmar using internationally recognized climate indices and robust statistical techniques. Such information is particularly valuable for government agencies responsible for climate adaptation planning, hydrological management, agricultural resilience, and sustainable infrastructure development.

  • Climate Change Adaptation Policies. The findings provide observational evidence that can support national climate adaptation plans by identifying regions experiencing increasing rainfall intensity, longer dry periods, or changing precipitation persistence.
  • Water Resource Management Strategies. Government agencies responsible for reservoirs, irrigation systems, river basin management, and watershed conservation may use the reported precipitation trends when developing long-term water resource management policies.
  • Disaster Risk Reduction Frameworks. The observed changes in heavy rainfall events and consecutive dry periods can contribute to policies aimed at improving flood preparedness, drought mitigation, and climate-related disaster resilience.
  • Infrastructure Planning Guidelines. Ministries responsible for transportation, public works, urban development, and civil infrastructure may consider regional precipitation trends when updating engineering design criteria and infrastructure resilience strategies.
  • Agricultural Adaptation Programs. Because precipitation variability strongly influences crop production and irrigation demand, the study provides scientific evidence that may inform agricultural planning and food security initiatives.
  • Environmental and Ecosystem Management. Understanding long-term rainfall variability supports watershed conservation, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable land-use planning in regions experiencing changing hydrological conditions.
  • National Climate Assessments. The observational dataset and trend analysis may contribute to future national climate reports, environmental assessments, and scientific references supporting international climate commitments.
  • International Development Programs. Organizations working on climate resilience, sustainable development, and disaster risk reduction may reference the study when designing adaptation projects in Myanmar and comparable monsoon-affected regions.

Although the article is highly relevant to climate adaptation and environmental planning, it does not directly develop engineering standards, regulatory frameworks, or economic policy models. Consequently, its greatest policy value lies in providing robust scientific evidence that supports informed decision-making rather than prescribing specific policy interventions.

11. Who Should Read This Paper?

  • Researchers working in climatology, hydrology, meteorology, environmental science, and climate change.
  • Civil, environmental, hydraulic, and water resource engineers responsible for climate-resilient infrastructure design.
  • Hydrologists and watershed management specialists investigating long-term precipitation variability.
  • Government agencies responsible for climate adaptation, disaster risk reduction, and water resource planning.
  • Urban planners and infrastructure managers incorporating climate resilience into development strategies.
  • Agricultural scientists and irrigation engineers studying rainfall variability and drought resilience.
  • Graduate students undertaking research in climate science, environmental engineering, hydrology, and sustainable development.
  • Meteorological organizations responsible for climate monitoring and long-term environmental observation.
  • International development organizations involved in climate adaptation and resilience projects across Southeast Asia.
  • Educators teaching climate change, hydrology, environmental engineering, or sustainable infrastructure courses.

12. Final Thoughts

This study provides a valuable contribution to the understanding of long-term precipitation variability in Myanmar by combining extensive observational records with internationally recognized climate indices and robust statistical trend analysis. Through the examination of both precipitation frequency and intensity, the research offers a comprehensive assessment of how rainfall characteristics have evolved across diverse physiographic regions over more than three decades. The findings demonstrate that climate change influences different parts of Myanmar in distinct ways, reinforcing the importance of regional rather than generalized national assessments.

One of the principal strengths of the article lies in its broad spatial coverage, standardized analytical framework, and careful interpretation of precipitation trends within the context of engineering and water resource management. Rather than focusing solely on average rainfall, the study evaluates multiple indicators that better represent climate extremes relevant to floods, droughts, and infrastructure resilience. This comprehensive approach increases both the scientific reliability and the practical usefulness of the findings.

The research also demonstrates clear interdisciplinary value by connecting climatological observations with applications in civil engineering, environmental management, disaster risk reduction, and sustainable development. Although the study does not predict future climate scenarios, it establishes an important observational baseline that can support subsequent modelling efforts and climate adaptation research. Overall, the article represents a scientifically rigorous and practically relevant contribution that enhances understanding of precipitation dynamics while providing valuable evidence for engineers, researchers, planners, and policymakers seeking to build more climate-resilient infrastructure and resource management systems.

Suggested Citation

UNP–Teknomekanik Style

Khaing, M., Zin, W. W., San, Z. M. L. T., Thiha, S., & Shrestha, M. (2025). Analysis of trends and variability in frequency and intensity indices of precipitation over Myanmar during 1985–2020. Innovation in Engineering, 2(2), 73–90. Universitas Negeri Padang. DOI: https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.33

APA (7th Edition)

Khaing, M., Zin, W. W., San, Z. M. L. T., Thiha, S., & Shrestha, M. (2025). Analysis of trends and variability in frequency and intensity indices of precipitation over Myanmar during 1985–2020. Innovation in Engineering, 2(2), 73–90. https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.33

IEEE Style

M. Khaing, W. W. Zin, Z. M. L. T. San, S. Thiha, and M. Shrestha, "Analysis of trends and variability in frequency and intensity indices of precipitation over Myanmar during 1985–2020," Innovation in Engineering, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 73–90, 2025, doi: 10.58712/ie.v2i1.33.

Harvard Style

Khaing, M., Zin, W.W., San, Z.M.L.T., Thiha, S. & Shrestha, M., 2025. Analysis of trends and variability in frequency and intensity indices of precipitation over Myanmar during 1985–2020. Innovation in Engineering, 2(2), pp.73–90. Available at: https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.33.

Vancouver Style

Khaing M, Zin WW, San ZMLT, Thiha S, Shrestha M. Analysis of trends and variability in frequency and intensity indices of precipitation over Myanmar during 1985–2020. Innovation in Engineering. 2025;2(2):73–90. Available from: https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.33

Chicago (Author–Date)

Khaing, Min, Win Win Zin, Zin Mar Lar Tin San, Soe Thiha, and Manish Shrestha. 2025. "Analysis of Trends and Variability in Frequency and Intensity Indices of Precipitation over Myanmar during 1985–2020." Innovation in Engineering 2 (2): 73–90. https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.33.

MLA (9th Edition)

Khaing, Min, et al. "Analysis of Trends and Variability in Frequency and Intensity Indices of Precipitation over Myanmar during 1985–2020." Innovation in Engineering, vol. 2, no. 2, 2025, pp. 73–90. Universitas Negeri Padang, https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.33.

Editorial Note

Editorial Note: This blog post is an independent scholarly review intended for educational and scientific communication purposes. It summarizes and discusses the published article in the author's own words while providing full attribution to the original publication, consistent with the principles of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license.

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