How Locally Available Lateritic Soil Could Reduce Road Construction Costs in Developing Countries

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Road infrastructure development in many developing countries is often constrained by the high cost of construction materials, particularly crushed rock transported from distant quarries. Besides increasing project expenses, this dependence also contributes to higher fuel consumption, carbon emissions, and longer construction schedules. Consequently, identifying locally available alternative materials has become an important engineering challenge. This study investigates whether lateritic soil stabilized with cement or lime can provide sufficient engineering performance for pavement subbase and base applications. Through comprehensive laboratory testing and comparative evaluation, the research offers practical evidence on improving locally sourced marginal soils into reliable construction materials. The findings provide valuable insights for transportation engineers, infrastructure planners, researchers, and policymakers seeking cost-effective and sustainable approaches to road construction.

Bibliographic Information

Item Information
Article Title Stabilization of lateritic soil using cement and lime for road construction
Authors Htet Okkar Kyaw and Nyan Myint Kyaw
Journal Innovation in Engineering
Volume & Issue Volume 2, Issue 1
Publication Year 2025
Pages 31–43
DOI https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.18
Publisher Researcher and Lecturer Society
License Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

1. Research Background

  • Road construction in developing countries is increasingly constrained by material transportation costs. Many highway projects depend on crushed rock obtained from distant quarries. Rising fuel prices and long transportation distances substantially increase construction costs while extending project completion time.
  • Dependence on conventional aggregates also creates environmental concerns. Transporting large quantities of crushed rock requires considerable energy consumption and generates additional greenhouse gas emissions, making conventional construction practices less sustainable.
  • Lateritic soil represents an abundant but underutilized local resource. Tropical countries possess extensive deposits of lateritic soil that are readily available near construction sites. However, untreated lateritic soil generally exhibits insufficient bearing capacity and strength for heavy-duty pavement applications.
  • Soil stabilization provides an engineering solution for improving marginal materials. Chemical stabilization using cement or lime has been widely applied to enhance the mechanical properties of weak soils through changes in particle bonding, strength development, durability, and moisture resistance.
  • Previous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of various stabilizing agents. Earlier investigations reported improvements using cement, lime, fly ash, silica fume, rice husk ash, and other supplementary materials. Nevertheless, engineering performance remains highly dependent on soil characteristics, stabilizer dosage, and curing conditions.
  • The engineering behavior of Myanmar's lateritic soil remains insufficiently documented. Although lateritic soil is widely distributed across Myanmar, limited research has systematically compared locally available deposits and evaluated their suitability as substitutes for imported crushed rock in pavement construction.
  • The study addresses this knowledge gap through comprehensive laboratory evaluation. Five lateritic soil sources were initially characterized, after which the most promising material was selected for stabilization using varying proportions of cement and lime under controlled laboratory conditions.
  • The research introduces a practical comparison between cement and lime stabilization. Rather than investigating only one stabilizer, the study evaluates both materials under identical testing conditions, enabling a direct comparison of their influence on compaction characteristics and unconfined compressive strength.
  • The findings contribute to sustainable and economical pavement engineering. By demonstrating the feasibility of upgrading locally available lateritic soil into pavement construction material, the research supports reduced dependence on transported aggregates while encouraging more resource-efficient infrastructure development.

2. Research Objectives

  • To evaluate the engineering properties of lateritic soils collected from five borrow pits located in Mokepalin, Hlegu, Hmawbi, Taikkyi, and Twantay.
  • To identify the most suitable locally available lateritic soil for stabilization based on its California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and other geotechnical properties.
  • To investigate the effects of cement stabilization on the compaction characteristics and unconfined compressive strength of lateritic soil.
  • To evaluate the engineering performance of lime-stabilized lateritic soil using identical laboratory testing procedures.
  • To compare the effectiveness of cement and lime as stabilizing agents for road subbase and base applications.
  • To determine stabilizer contents capable of satisfying engineering requirements specified for pavement subbase and base layers.
  • To provide an economical and sustainable alternative to conventional crushed rock for road construction using locally available marginal soils.

3. Why This Research Matters

  • Reduces road construction costs. Utilizing locally available lateritic soil decreases dependence on expensive crushed rock transported from distant quarries, offering significant economic benefits for infrastructure projects.
  • Supports sustainable infrastructure development. Replacing transported aggregates with locally sourced materials reduces transportation-related fuel consumption and associated carbon emissions.
  • Improves utilization of indigenous construction materials. The research demonstrates how marginal soils can be upgraded through stabilization, increasing the engineering value of locally available natural resources.
  • Provides practical guidance for pavement engineers. The comparative evaluation of cement and lime offers evidence-based recommendations for selecting appropriate stabilizers according to pavement performance requirements.
  • Strengthens transportation infrastructure. Improved soil strength and durability contribute to longer pavement service life, enhanced load-bearing capacity, and reduced maintenance requirements.
  • Supports engineering decision-making. Laboratory-based performance comparisons enable engineers to select stabilization strategies based on measured engineering properties rather than assumptions.
  • Promotes sustainable engineering practice in developing countries. The methodology can assist countries possessing abundant lateritic soils in reducing construction costs while improving the resilience of transportation infrastructure.
  • Creates opportunities for wider implementation. Because cement and lime stabilization techniques are already widely available, the proposed approach can be adapted by highway agencies and infrastructure planners in many tropical regions.

4. Research Methodology

  • Research Type

    This study employed an experimental laboratory-based geotechnical engineering approach to investigate the stabilization of lateritic soil for road pavement applications. The research combined soil characterization, material selection, laboratory stabilization, and mechanical performance evaluation to determine whether locally available lateritic soil could replace conventional crushed rock in pavement construction. Rather than relying on theoretical modelling, the investigation generated engineering evidence through standardized laboratory testing procedures.

  • Study Area and Soil Sources

    Five lateritic soil deposits located in Myanmar were investigated. Soil samples were collected from Mokepalin, Hlegu, Hmawbi, Taikkyi, and Twantay. To minimize the influence of organic matter, undisturbed samples were obtained from depths of approximately one to two metres below the existing ground surface. These locations were selected because they represent commonly available borrow pits used in regional road construction projects.

    The first stage of the research compared the engineering properties of all five soil sources. California Bearing Ratio (CBR), particle size distribution, plasticity characteristics, optimum moisture content, and maximum dry density were evaluated to identify the most suitable candidate for stabilization. Hmawbi lateritic soil was ultimately selected because its engineering performance was closest to that of Mokepalin soil while being locally available around Yangon.

  • Stabilizing Materials

    Two conventional chemical stabilizers were investigated: ordinary cement and lime. Each stabilizer was mixed with the selected lateritic soil using proportions of 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%, 12%, 14%, and 16% by dry weight of soil. This systematic variation enabled the researchers to examine how increasing stabilizer dosage influenced compaction behaviour and mechanical strength.

    Dry soil and stabilizer were thoroughly blended until a uniform mixture was achieved before water was gradually added to facilitate compaction. Separate specimen groups were prepared for cement stabilization and lime stabilization to ensure consistent experimental comparison.

  • Laboratory Testing Program

    Engineering properties of both untreated and stabilized soils were evaluated using internationally recognized ASTM standards. Initial characterization included grain size distribution (ASTM C136), Atterberg limits (ASTM D4318), Modified Proctor compaction (ASTM D1557), and soaked California Bearing Ratio testing (ASTM D1883). These tests established the fundamental geotechnical characteristics of each lateritic soil source before stabilization.

    Following stabilization, additional Modified Proctor compaction tests were performed to determine optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD). Mechanical performance was subsequently assessed using Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) testing according to ASTM D1633.

  • Preparation of Stabilized Specimens

    Specimens were compacted at their respective optimum moisture contents determined from Modified Proctor testing. Cylindrical UCS samples were then prepared and cured under controlled laboratory conditions for three curing periods: 7 days, 14 days, and 28 days. Before strength testing, stabilized specimens were soaked for two hours to evaluate engineering performance under moisture exposure representative of field conditions.

  • Engineering Parameters Evaluated

    Several engineering indicators were examined throughout the investigation. Particle size distribution was used to classify soil texture, while Atterberg limits quantified soil plasticity behaviour. Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) described compaction characteristics. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) represented bearing capacity for pavement applications, whereas Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) measured the structural strength developed after stabilization and curing.

  • Comparative Analysis

    Experimental results obtained from cement stabilization and lime stabilization were directly compared across identical stabilizer contents and curing periods. Changes in density, moisture demand, and compressive strength were analysed to identify the most effective stabilizing agent for lateritic soil improvement. The observed performance was subsequently interpreted with reference to accepted engineering requirements for pavement subbase and base layers.

  • Engineering Standards and Performance Assessment

    The suitability of stabilized lateritic soil for pavement construction was assessed using established engineering criteria. Unconfined Compressive Strength values were compared with requirements published by the Joint Departments of the Army and Air Force for road subbase and base applications. This comparison enabled the researchers to determine the stabilizer contents capable of satisfying practical pavement engineering specifications.

  • Validation Strategy

    Validation relied on systematic laboratory experimentation using standardized testing procedures rather than numerical simulation. Consistent testing across multiple stabilizer contents and curing durations provided repeatable performance trends. Comparison with previous studies and accepted engineering specifications further strengthened the reliability of the experimental findings and demonstrated the practical applicability of the proposed stabilization approach.

5. Key Findings

Hmawbi Lateritic Soil Was Identified as the Most Suitable Local Material

Among the five investigated borrow pits, Hmawbi lateritic soil demonstrated engineering characteristics that most closely matched the reference material obtained from Mokepalin. Although Mokepalin soil exhibited the highest California Bearing Ratio (CBR), the Hmawbi deposit showed comparable performance while offering the practical advantage of being locally available near Yangon, thereby reducing transportation requirements.

Detailed laboratory characterization indicated that the selected soil possessed moderate fines content, acceptable plasticity, and favourable compaction behaviour. According to the AASHTO classification system, the untreated soil was categorized as A-2-6, indicating suitability for subgrade applications before stabilization. This initial evaluation established Hmawbi lateritic soil as the primary material for the subsequent stabilization experiments.

Cement Significantly Improved the Mechanical Strength of Lateritic Soil

Cement stabilization produced a substantial increase in Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) as both cement content and curing duration increased. Specimens containing higher cement percentages consistently developed greater strength because hydration reactions formed cementitious bonds between soil particles, resulting in a denser and more coherent internal structure.

After twenty-eight days of curing, specimens stabilized with sixteen percent cement achieved a UCS value of approximately 7.12 MPa, exceeding the engineering requirement for pavement base layers. These results demonstrate that cement stabilization can effectively transform locally available lateritic soil into a material suitable for higher structural loading conditions encountered in road construction.

Lime Improved Soil Properties but Was More Suitable for Subbase Applications

Lime stabilization also enhanced the engineering performance of lateritic soil, although the magnitude of improvement was considerably smaller than that achieved with cement. Progressive increases in lime content and curing time resulted in gradual strength development through cation exchange, flocculation, and pozzolanic reactions occurring within the soil matrix.

Despite these improvements, the highest UCS values obtained with lime remained below the strength required for pavement base courses. Consequently, lime stabilization appears more appropriate for subbase construction or applications where moderate strength improvement is sufficient rather than heavy-duty pavement structures.

Compaction Characteristics Responded Differently to Cement and Lime

The experimental results revealed contrasting effects of the two stabilizers on compaction behaviour. Increasing cement content produced progressively higher Maximum Dry Density (MDD), indicating that cement hydration enhanced particle bonding and reduced internal void spaces within the compacted soil.

Conversely, increasing lime content reduced Maximum Dry Density because flocculation and aggregation caused soil particles to form larger clusters, increasing void ratio during compaction. Both stabilizers required higher Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) as dosage increased, although cement generally demanded slightly greater moisture due to hydration requirements.

Longer Curing Periods Produced Higher Engineering Performance

Both stabilization techniques exhibited continuous strength development throughout the curing process. Specimens cured for twenty-eight days consistently outperformed those tested after seven and fourteen days, confirming that curing duration plays an essential role in achieving the full engineering benefits of chemical stabilization.

The improvement was particularly pronounced for cement-treated specimens because continued hydration generated additional cementitious compounds that strengthened the soil skeleton over time. These observations reinforce the importance of appropriate curing practices before stabilized pavement layers are subjected to service loads.

Locally Available Lateritic Soil Can Reduce Dependence on Imported Aggregates

One of the most important outcomes of the study is the demonstration that locally available lateritic soil can become a viable pavement construction material when properly stabilized. Rather than transporting crushed rock over long distances, engineers may utilize regional soil resources after suitable treatment, thereby reducing transportation costs and environmental impacts.

The research therefore provides practical engineering evidence supporting more sustainable infrastructure development. For countries possessing abundant lateritic deposits, chemical stabilization offers an economically attractive strategy for improving pavement materials while decreasing dependence on conventional aggregates obtained from remote quarry sites.

6. Scientific Contribution

  • Provides a comprehensive evaluation of locally available lateritic soil for pavement engineering. Rather than focusing on a single soil source, the study systematically compared five lateritic soil deposits before selecting the most suitable material for stabilization. This approach strengthens the reliability of material selection for practical road construction projects.
  • Demonstrates a direct engineering comparison between cement and lime stabilization. By applying identical laboratory procedures to both stabilizers across multiple dosage levels and curing periods, the research provides a clear understanding of their relative performance under consistent experimental conditions.
  • Contributes practical evidence on the influence of stabilizer content. The study quantifies how increasing cement and lime percentages affect maximum dry density, optimum moisture content, and unconfined compressive strength, enabling engineers to understand performance trends rather than relying solely on empirical assumptions.
  • Validates internationally recognized laboratory procedures for pavement material evaluation. Engineering performance was assessed using ASTM standards for grain size analysis, Atterberg limits, compaction, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), and Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS), providing results that can be compared with future investigations conducted in other regions.
  • Supports the development of sustainable pavement engineering. The research demonstrates that locally available marginal soils can be upgraded into functional pavement materials, reducing dependence on transported crushed rock while promoting more efficient use of indigenous natural resources.
  • Provides engineering guidance for tropical lateritic soils. Because lateritic soils are widely distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions, the findings establish a practical reference for engineers working in countries with similar geological conditions.
  • Bridges laboratory investigation with infrastructure applications. Rather than reporting laboratory measurements alone, the study interprets the experimental results using engineering specifications for pavement subbase and base courses, increasing the practical relevance of the findings.

7. Industrial Implications

  • Reduces dependence on imported construction aggregates. Highway agencies can utilize locally available lateritic soil after stabilization, decreasing transportation distances and lowering material procurement costs.
  • Improves economic efficiency in road construction. Using nearby soil resources instead of transporting crushed rock from distant quarries has the potential to reduce fuel consumption, logistics expenses, and overall project costs.
  • Supports sustainable material management. Greater utilization of indigenous soils contributes to more responsible resource management by reducing extraction pressure on conventional aggregate sources and minimizing transportation-related environmental impacts.
  • Enhances pavement structural performance. Cement stabilization significantly improves compressive strength, enabling lateritic soil to satisfy engineering requirements for pavement base layers under appropriate stabilizer contents and curing conditions.
  • Provides practical guidance for material selection. The comparative results indicate that cement is more appropriate for heavily loaded pavement structures, whereas lime stabilization may be more suitable for subbase applications requiring moderate strength improvement.
  • Supports quality control during construction. The relationships identified between stabilizer dosage, compaction characteristics, curing period, and mechanical strength provide engineers with measurable parameters that can be monitored during field implementation.
  • Contributes to resilient transportation infrastructure. Stronger pavement foundation materials improve load-bearing capacity and durability, potentially extending pavement service life while reducing long-term maintenance requirements.
  • Facilitates engineering practice in developing countries. The stabilization procedures investigated in this research employ widely available materials and established laboratory methods, making implementation feasible for many highway construction projects without requiring advanced technology.
  • Encourages environmentally responsible infrastructure development. Reduced transportation distances and greater utilization of local materials contribute to lower energy consumption and support broader sustainability objectives within the construction industry.

8. Research Limitations

  • The investigation was conducted using lateritic soils collected from selected locations in Myanmar. Although these materials represent important regional soil sources, additional studies involving other geological conditions would improve understanding of broader applicability.
  • Only two conventional stabilizing agents, cement and lime, were evaluated. Other stabilizers, including industrial by-products, blended binders, or alternative chemical additives, were outside the scope of the present investigation.
  • The experimental program focused primarily on laboratory performance. Field-scale construction trials under actual traffic loading and environmental exposure were not included and therefore remain an important area for future verification.
  • Mechanical performance evaluation concentrated on compaction characteristics, California Bearing Ratio, and Unconfined Compressive Strength. Other engineering properties such as resilient modulus, fatigue behaviour, permeability, shrinkage, and long-term durability were not investigated.
  • The curing periods were limited to seven, fourteen, and twenty-eight days. Longer-term performance beyond the laboratory curing period was not evaluated and may influence engineering behaviour throughout the service life of pavement structures.
  • Environmental and economic assessments were discussed qualitatively. Detailed life-cycle cost analysis and carbon footprint evaluation were beyond the objectives of the study.
  • The research examined one selected lateritic soil after initial screening. Consequently, engineering behaviour may vary for lateritic soils possessing substantially different mineralogical composition or plasticity characteristics.

9. Future Research Opportunities

  • Evaluate the long-term field performance of cement- and lime-stabilized lateritic soils under actual traffic loading and environmental conditions.
  • Investigate additional stabilizing agents, including fly ash, rice husk ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume, geopolymer binders, and other sustainable industrial by-products.
  • Conduct comprehensive life-cycle cost analysis comparing stabilized lateritic soil with conventional crushed-rock pavement construction.
  • Assess the environmental performance of stabilization techniques through detailed carbon emission and sustainability assessment.
  • Examine the influence of mineralogical composition and soil chemistry on stabilization effectiveness across different tropical lateritic soils.
  • Investigate long-term durability under repeated wetting–drying cycles, freeze–thaw exposure where applicable, and seasonal environmental variations.
  • Study the fatigue behaviour, resilient modulus, permeability, and deformation characteristics of stabilized lateritic soils for advanced pavement design.
  • Develop predictive numerical or machine-learning models capable of estimating stabilized soil performance from basic geotechnical properties and stabilizer dosage.
  • Validate the proposed stabilization approach through pilot-scale highway construction projects involving continuous performance monitoring.
  • Develop national engineering guidelines for the utilization of stabilized lateritic soils as alternative pavement materials in tropical developing countries.

10. Potential for Public Policy Citation (Overton)

This article demonstrates meaningful potential for citation within public policy and engineering guidance documents because it addresses a practical infrastructure challenge frequently encountered in developing countries: how to reduce road construction costs while maintaining engineering performance. By evaluating locally available lateritic soil as an alternative pavement material, the research contributes evidence that can inform more sustainable and economical infrastructure planning.

The study is particularly relevant for transportation agencies responsible for highway development, pavement design, and material resource management. The experimental findings provide engineering data that may support technical recommendations regarding soil stabilization, utilization of local construction materials, and reduction of dependence on imported aggregates. Since the laboratory evaluation follows internationally recognized ASTM standards, the methodology can also assist engineering organizations in developing technical specifications for stabilized pavement materials.

From a broader policy perspective, the research aligns with objectives related to sustainable infrastructure, resource efficiency, and climate-conscious construction practices. The demonstrated use of locally sourced materials has implications for reducing transportation-related energy consumption and supporting regional economic development. Nevertheless, because the investigation was conducted at laboratory scale using one selected lateritic soil, additional field validation would strengthen its suitability for direct adoption within national pavement standards and large-scale infrastructure policies.

11. Who Should Read This Paper?

  • Civil engineering researchers.
  • Geotechnical engineering researchers.
  • Pavement engineering specialists.
  • Highway and transportation engineers.
  • Road construction contractors.
  • Infrastructure planners.
  • Government agencies responsible for highway development.
  • Graduate students in civil and transportation engineering.
  • Researchers working on sustainable construction materials.
  • Consultants involved in pavement design and geotechnical investigation.
  • Educators teaching geotechnical engineering, highway engineering, and pavement materials.
  • Policymakers interested in sustainable infrastructure development and resource-efficient construction.

12. Final Thoughts

This study provides a practical and well-executed investigation into one of the most important challenges facing transportation infrastructure development in many developing countries: how to utilize locally available materials without compromising engineering performance. Through systematic laboratory evaluation, the authors demonstrate that chemical stabilization can substantially improve the mechanical properties of lateritic soil, allowing it to serve as a viable alternative to conventional crushed rock in selected pavement applications.

A major strength of the research lies in its comprehensive comparison between cement and lime stabilization under identical experimental conditions. Rather than presenting isolated laboratory results, the study examines multiple engineering properties—including compaction behaviour, California Bearing Ratio, and Unconfined Compressive Strength—using internationally recognized ASTM testing procedures. This integrated evaluation enables readers to understand not only whether stabilization improves soil performance, but also how different stabilizing agents influence engineering behaviour under varying material contents and curing periods.

The findings indicate that cement stabilization provides substantially greater strength development than lime stabilization, making it suitable for pavement base applications when appropriate stabilizer contents are employed. Lime, although improving engineering performance, appears more appropriate for subbase layers where moderate strength enhancement is sufficient. This distinction provides valuable practical guidance for pavement engineers responsible for selecting stabilization strategies under different project requirements.

Beyond its technical findings, the research contributes to broader discussions on sustainable infrastructure by demonstrating how indigenous materials can reduce transportation costs, lower environmental impacts associated with aggregate hauling, and improve resource utilization. Although additional field validation would strengthen the practical implementation of the proposed approach, the study offers an important contribution to pavement engineering and provides a useful reference for future investigations involving locally available geomaterials in tropical regions.

Suggested Citation

UNP–Teknomekanik Style

Kyaw HO, Kyaw NM. Stabilization of lateritic soil using cement and lime for road construction. Innovation in Engineering. 2025;2(1):31–43. Available from: https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.18

APA (7th Edition)

Kyaw, H. O., & Kyaw, N. M. (2025). Stabilization of lateritic soil using cement and lime for road construction. Innovation in Engineering, 2(1), 31–43. https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.18

IEEE Style

H. O. Kyaw and N. M. Kyaw, "Stabilization of lateritic soil using cement and lime for road construction," Innovation in Engineering, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 31–43, 2025. doi: 10.58712/ie.v2i1.18

Harvard Style

Kyaw, H.O. & Kyaw, N.M., 2025. Stabilization of lateritic soil using cement and lime for road construction. Innovation in Engineering, 2(1), pp.31–43. Available at: https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.18

Vancouver Style

Kyaw HO, Kyaw NM. Stabilization of lateritic soil using cement and lime for road construction. Innovation in Engineering. 2025;2(1):31–43. Available from: https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.18

Chicago (Author–Date)

Kyaw, Htet Okkar, and Nyan Myint Kyaw. 2025. "Stabilization of Lateritic Soil Using Cement and Lime for Road Construction." Innovation in Engineering 2 (1): 31–43. https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.18

MLA (9th Edition)

Kyaw, Htet Okkar, and Nyan Myint Kyaw. "Stabilization of Lateritic Soil Using Cement and Lime for Road Construction." Innovation in Engineering, vol. 2, no. 1, 2025, pp. 31–43. https://doi.org/10.58712/ie.v2i1.18

Editorial Note

Editorial Note: This blog post is an independent scholarly review intended for educational and scientific communication purposes. It summarizes and discusses the published article in the author's own words while providing full attribution to the original publication, consistent with the principles of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license.

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An in-depth scholarly review of research on cement- and lime-stabilized lateritic soil for road construction, highlighting laboratory methods, engineering performance, sustainability, industrial implications, and future research opportunities.

SEO Keywords

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Discoverability

  • Primary Category: Geotechnical Engineering
  • Secondary Category: Pavement Engineering
  • Research Area: Soil Stabilization
  • Engineering Discipline: Civil Engineering
  • Application Area: Road Construction Materials
  • SDGs: SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure) and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities)
  • Target Audience: Researchers, graduate students, highway engineers, infrastructure agencies, consultants, and policymakers.

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