Why Water-Cooled Condensers Could Redefine Energy-Efficient Refrigeration Systems in Tropical Climates

on

Cooling technologies are among the largest consumers of electricity in residential, commercial, and industrial buildings, particularly in tropical countries where refrigeration and air conditioning operate throughout the year. Improving the efficiency of these systems has therefore become an important engineering priority, not only to reduce operational costs but also to support global efforts toward energy conservation and carbon emission reduction. While advances in compressors and refrigerants have attracted considerable attention, the condenser—the component responsible for rejecting heat from the refrigeration cycle—remains an area with significant opportunities for performance enhancement.

The study reviewed here investigates how replacing a conventional air-cooled condenser with a water-cooled configuration influences the thermodynamic behavior and overall energy efficiency of a vapor compression refrigeration system. Rather than evaluating performance solely through the traditional Coefficient of Performance (COP), the researchers introduce a more comprehensive assessment by considering the electrical consumption of all supporting components through the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER). The findings provide valuable insights for engineers, researchers, building designers, and energy policymakers seeking practical strategies to develop more efficient and sustainable cooling technologies for tropical environments.

Bibliographic Information

Item Information
Article Title Vapor Compression Refrigeration System with Air and Water Cooled Condenser: Analysis of Thermodynamic Behavior and Energy Efficiency Ratio
Authors Muji Setiyo, Retno Rusdjijati, Ilham Habibi, Muhamad Latifur Rochman, Bagiyo Condro Purnomo, Fungky Dyan Pertiwi, Budi Waluyo, Rifky Ismail, and Aditya Kolakoti
Journal Teknomekanik
Volume & Issue Volume 7, Issue 2
Publication Year 2024
Pages 112–125
DOI https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v7i2.31972
Publisher Universitas Negeri Padang
License Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

1. Research Background

  • Cooling demand continues to increase worldwide. Rising ambient temperatures, rapid urbanization, and the growing need for thermal comfort have substantially increased the use of vapor compression refrigeration and air-conditioning systems. This trend has intensified electricity consumption, particularly in tropical countries where cooling systems often operate throughout the day.
  • Energy efficiency has become a critical engineering challenge. Refrigeration systems account for a significant portion of building energy consumption and indirectly contribute to greenhouse gas emissions through electricity generation. Consequently, improving refrigeration efficiency represents an important pathway toward reducing operating costs and supporting environmental sustainability.
  • Waste heat remains an underutilized energy resource. Conventional air-conditioning systems continuously reject heat through the condenser into the surrounding environment. Although this thermal energy is typically discarded, previous studies have demonstrated that condenser waste heat can potentially be recovered for domestic hot water production, thereby increasing the overall usefulness of the refrigeration cycle.
  • Previous research has primarily focused on COP. Earlier investigations comparing air-cooled and water-cooled refrigeration systems generally evaluated system performance using the Coefficient of Performance (COP). While COP is a well-established thermodynamic indicator, it mainly considers compressor work and does not fully represent the total electrical energy consumed by auxiliary components required for system operation.
  • Compressor operating behavior has received limited attention. Most previous studies did not investigate compressor duty cycles or the intermittent on-off operation commonly observed in practical refrigeration systems. As a result, system performance under real operating conditions has not been comprehensively assessed.
  • Total system energy consumption deserves broader evaluation. Refrigeration systems require additional electrical devices such as evaporator blowers, condenser fans, and water circulation pumps. Evaluating only compressor power may underestimate the actual energy required to deliver cooling and heating performance in integrated refrigeration systems.
  • The study addresses an important research gap. To overcome these limitations, the authors compare air-cooled and water-cooled condenser configurations by analyzing thermodynamic behavior, compressor operating characteristics, cooling capacity, heat recovery potential, and overall Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER), which incorporates the electricity consumption of all supporting components.
  • The proposed evaluation is particularly relevant for tropical climates. By investigating refrigeration performance over a continuous 12-hour operating period under varying ambient temperatures, the study provides practical evidence regarding the suitability of water-cooled condensers for improving energy efficiency in regions with consistently warm environmental conditions.

2. Research Objectives

  • To compare the thermodynamic performance of vapor compression refrigeration systems equipped with air-cooled and water-cooled condensers under identical operating conditions.
  • To investigate how condenser type influences refrigerant pressure, temperature, compressor operating behavior, cooling capacity, and heat rejection throughout a 12-hour experimental period.
  • To evaluate refrigeration system performance using both the conventional Coefficient of Performance (COP) and a more comprehensive Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) that incorporates the electrical consumption of auxiliary system components.
  • To determine whether integrating a water-cooled condenser can simultaneously provide space cooling and useful hot water while improving overall energy utilization.
  • To quantify the potential energy savings and operational advantages associated with replacing a conventional air-cooled condenser with a water-cooled configuration.
  • To provide experimental evidence supporting the adoption of more energy-efficient refrigeration technologies suitable for commercial and residential applications in tropical environments.

3. Why This Research Matters

  • Supports energy-efficient building technologies. The study demonstrates how improvements in condenser design can significantly enhance refrigeration performance while reducing electricity consumption, making cooling systems more economical to operate.
  • Advances sustainable thermal engineering. Recovering useful heat from refrigeration condensers contributes to better energy utilization by combining cooling and water heating within a single thermodynamic system.
  • Improves engineering performance evaluation. By introducing Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) as a comprehensive indicator that includes auxiliary electrical loads, the research encourages more realistic assessments of refrigeration system performance than conventional COP analysis alone.
  • Provides practical guidance for tropical regions. Countries experiencing consistently high ambient temperatures require refrigeration systems capable of maintaining efficiency despite challenging environmental conditions. The study offers experimental evidence relevant to these operational environments.
  • Contributes to lower operational costs. Higher system efficiency reduces electrical energy consumption, potentially lowering operating expenses for commercial buildings, hotels, hospitals, supermarkets, and industrial refrigeration facilities.
  • Supports environmental sustainability. More efficient refrigeration systems require less electrical power, which can contribute indirectly to reducing greenhouse gas emissions associated with electricity generation.
  • Encourages innovation in refrigeration system design. The findings highlight opportunities for engineers to integrate heat recovery technologies into future refrigeration equipment, supporting the development of multifunctional and resource-efficient thermal systems.
  • Provides evidence for future cooling technology development. The experimental comparison between air-cooled and water-cooled condensers offers valuable data that may inform future research on sustainable refrigeration, heat recovery systems, and integrated energy management technologies.

4. Research Methodology

  • Research Design

    The study employed an experimental engineering approach to compare the thermodynamic performance of two vapor compression refrigeration systems operating with different condenser configurations: an Air-Cooled Condenser (ACC) and a Water-Cooled Condenser (WCC). Both configurations were evaluated under identical operating conditions to ensure a fair comparison of refrigeration performance and energy efficiency.

  • Experimental System

    A laboratory-scale vapor compression refrigeration system was constructed consisting of a compressor, condenser, filter dryer, expansion valve, evaporator, refrigerant piping, and a controlled cooling chamber. The experimental apparatus was designed so that the condenser could alternatively operate as either an air-cooled or water-cooled unit without changing the remaining refrigeration components.

  • Working Fluid

    The refrigeration system used R134a refrigerant with a total refrigerant charge of 0.44 kg. During system operation, the refrigerant circulated through the conventional vapor compression cycle, allowing the researchers to monitor pressure, temperature, cooling performance, and heat rejection under both condenser configurations.

  • Experimental Duration

    Each experimental configuration was operated continuously for approximately twelve hours, from 08:00 until 20:00. This extended testing period enabled the researchers to observe system behavior under changing ambient temperatures from morning through midday and into the evening, providing a more representative assessment of real operating conditions in tropical climates.

  • Instrumentation and Data Acquisition

    System performance was monitored using calibrated temperature sensors, pressure transducers, humidity sensors, and a compressor speed sensor connected to a computerized data acquisition system. Refrigerant pressure and temperature were measured at multiple locations throughout the refrigeration cycle, while chamber temperature, environmental conditions, compressor rotation, and water temperatures were continuously recorded during testing.

  • Measured Variables

    The experimental measurements included refrigerant pressure, refrigerant temperature, ambient temperature, cooled chamber temperature, relative humidity, compressor rotational speed, electrical energy consumption, and water temperature during water-cooled condenser operation. These variables were subsequently used to evaluate thermodynamic performance and overall system efficiency.

  • Thermodynamic Analysis

    The researchers calculated refrigerant enthalpy values using pressure-enthalpy (p-h) relationships. Cooling capacity, condenser heat rejection, compressor work, and total useful energy were then determined through thermodynamic equations. Unlike conventional refrigeration analyses that primarily emphasize compressor work, this study also incorporated the electrical consumption of auxiliary equipment into the overall energy assessment.

  • Performance Indicators

    Two complementary performance indicators were employed:

    • Coefficient of Performance (COP) for evaluating refrigeration efficiency based on compressor work.
    • Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) for assessing total system performance by considering the electrical consumption of all supporting components, including the evaporator blower, condenser fan, and water circulation pump.

    This broader evaluation provides a more realistic representation of actual energy use in practical refrigeration applications.

  • Compressor Duty Cycle Analysis

    Beyond conventional thermodynamic evaluation, the study analyzed compressor on-off operating cycles throughout system operation. Monitoring compressor duty cycles allowed the researchers to investigate how condenser type influences compressor workload, operating duration, and overall electrical energy consumption.

  • Validation Strategy

    The comparison between ACC and WCC configurations was based on experimentally measured data collected under identical operating conditions. Thermodynamic properties were verified using refrigerant pressure-enthalpy relationships, while performance comparisons relied on measured temperatures, pressures, cooling capacity, heat rejection, compressor operation, COP, and EER to ensure consistency throughout the analysis.

5. Key Findings

Water-Cooled Condensers Significantly Improve Overall Energy Efficiency

The most important outcome of the study is that the water-cooled condenser consistently outperformed the conventional air-cooled condenser in overall system efficiency. Although both systems successfully maintained the desired cooling conditions, the water-cooled configuration utilized electrical energy more effectively by simultaneously producing useful cooling and recoverable thermal energy.

When total electrical consumption was considered through the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER), the difference became particularly evident. The reported total EER reached approximately 5.658 for the water-cooled condenser, compared with only 1.945 for the air-cooled system. This finding demonstrates that evaluating the complete refrigeration system—including auxiliary electrical components—provides a more comprehensive measure of practical energy performance than relying solely on conventional COP calculations.

Lower Condenser Pressure Reduces Compressor Workload

Experimental measurements showed that the water-cooled condenser maintained noticeably lower refrigerant pressure on the high-pressure side of the refrigeration cycle. The average discharge pressure after compression was approximately 1.42 bar lower than that observed in the air-cooled configuration.

Lower condensing pressure reduces the compression ratio required during each refrigeration cycle, allowing the compressor to operate under lighter mechanical loading. As a result, the refrigeration system consumed less electrical energy while maintaining comparable cooling performance, illustrating one of the primary thermodynamic advantages of water-cooled condenser technology.

Improved Heat Transfer Enhances Refrigeration Performance

The water-cooled condenser demonstrated superior heat rejection capability throughout the experimental period. Better heat transfer allowed the refrigerant to leave the condenser at a lower temperature before entering the expansion valve, improving subsequent refrigeration processes inside the evaporator.

The study reported approximately 5.7% greater condenser heat rejection together with about 4.2% higher cooling capacity compared with the conventional air-cooled condenser. These improvements indicate that enhanced condenser cooling contributes directly to more efficient thermodynamic performance throughout the entire refrigeration cycle.

Reduced Compressor Duty Cycle Lowers Electricity Consumption

Another important observation concerns compressor operating behavior. The water-cooled condenser reduced the duration and frequency of compressor operation because heat could be removed more efficiently from the refrigerant. Consequently, the compressor required less time to maintain the desired chamber temperature.

Shorter compressor duty cycles translate into lower electricity consumption and potentially reduced mechanical wear over long-term operation. This finding highlights that condenser selection influences not only thermodynamic performance but also operational characteristics that may affect equipment durability and maintenance requirements.

Energy Efficiency Assessment Should Include Auxiliary Components

A notable methodological contribution of the research is its emphasis on evaluating the electrical consumption of the complete refrigeration system rather than focusing exclusively on compressor power. In practical applications, evaporator blowers, condenser fans, and water pumps also require electricity to sustain system operation.

By incorporating these auxiliary loads into the Energy Efficiency Ratio, the researchers provide a performance indicator that more accurately reflects real operating conditions. This broader perspective offers engineers a more reliable basis for comparing alternative refrigeration technologies and estimating actual operational energy costs.

Integrated Cooling and Heat Recovery Increases System Utilization

Unlike conventional air-cooled condensers that simply reject waste heat into the atmosphere, the water-cooled configuration captures thermal energy that can be used for water heating. Consequently, a single refrigeration system simultaneously delivers two useful outputs: space cooling and hot water production.

This dual-function capability improves overall energy utilization and supports the development of integrated thermal management systems. For commercial buildings, hotels, hospitals, and similar facilities with simultaneous cooling and hot water demands, such integration could contribute to substantial long-term energy savings.

6. Scientific Contribution

  • Introduces a more comprehensive framework for refrigeration performance evaluation by incorporating the electrical consumption of auxiliary components through the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER), extending beyond traditional COP-based analysis.
  • Provides experimental evidence comparing air-cooled and water-cooled condenser systems under identical operating conditions over an extended twelve-hour testing period representative of tropical environmental conditions.
  • Demonstrates the thermodynamic advantages of water-cooled condenser technology, including lower condensing pressure, improved heat rejection, increased cooling capacity, and reduced compressor workload.
  • Expands engineering understanding of compressor duty cycle behavior by relating condenser cooling performance to compressor operating duration and overall electrical energy consumption.
  • Supports the concept of integrated energy utilization by experimentally demonstrating that refrigeration systems can simultaneously provide space cooling and useful hot water through condenser heat recovery.
  • Offers practical experimental data that can support future research in sustainable refrigeration, thermal system optimization, heat recovery technologies, and energy-efficient building services.

7. Industrial Implications

  • Enhances refrigeration system design. The experimental evidence demonstrates that selecting a water-cooled condenser can significantly improve thermodynamic performance while reducing electrical energy consumption. Engineers designing refrigeration systems may therefore consider water-cooled condensers for applications where water availability and heat recovery are feasible.
  • Supports energy-efficient commercial buildings. Commercial facilities such as hotels, supermarkets, hospitals, restaurants, office buildings, and shopping centers often require both air conditioning and hot water simultaneously. Integrating a water-cooled condenser enables these demands to be addressed within a single refrigeration system, improving overall energy utilization.
  • Reduces operational electricity costs. Lower compressor workload and shorter compressor duty cycles decrease total electrical energy consumption. Over long operating periods, these improvements can contribute to meaningful reductions in operating expenses for continuously operated refrigeration systems.
  • Extends equipment service life. Operating under lower condensing pressures reduces mechanical stress on compressors and associated refrigeration components. Although long-term durability was not directly investigated, reduced operating loads may contribute to lower maintenance requirements and longer equipment life.
  • Promotes waste heat recovery technologies. Rather than rejecting condenser heat into the surrounding environment, the recovered thermal energy can be utilized for domestic or industrial hot water applications. This approach increases overall system efficiency and supports more sustainable thermal energy management.
  • Supports sustainable manufacturing and green buildings. More energy-efficient refrigeration technologies contribute to lower electricity demand and reduced indirect greenhouse gas emissions, supporting sustainable manufacturing practices and environmentally responsible building operation.
  • Contributes to Industry 4.0 and digital engineering. The comprehensive monitoring of pressure, temperature, compressor speed, and electrical consumption demonstrates the importance of sensor-based performance evaluation. Such experimental approaches provide valuable data for future intelligent refrigeration systems, digital twins, predictive maintenance, and real-time energy optimization.
  • Provides engineering guidance for tropical regions. Since the experiments were conducted over varying ambient temperatures representative of tropical climates, the findings offer practical reference data for engineers designing refrigeration systems in countries with consistently warm environmental conditions.

8. Research Limitations

  • The experimental investigation was conducted using a laboratory-scale refrigeration system. Performance characteristics may differ when applied to larger commercial or industrial refrigeration installations.
  • The study evaluated one refrigerant (R134a) only. The performance of alternative low-global-warming-potential refrigerants was beyond the scope of the investigation.
  • Testing was performed over a twelve-hour operating period under specific environmental conditions. Longer-term seasonal evaluations could provide additional insights into system stability and annual energy performance.
  • The research focused primarily on thermodynamic behavior and energy efficiency. Economic assessments such as installation cost, life-cycle cost, and investment payback period were not included.
  • The experimental comparison considered one air-cooled and one water-cooled condenser configuration. Alternative condenser geometries, heat exchanger designs, and cooling strategies may produce different performance characteristics.
  • Although compressor duty cycles were analyzed, the study did not investigate long-term compressor reliability, maintenance requirements, or component degradation resulting from prolonged operation.
  • Water consumption and water resource availability, which may influence the practicality of water-cooled condenser implementation in certain regions, were not evaluated in this study.

9. Future Research Opportunities

  • Evaluate water-cooled condenser performance using environmentally friendly refrigerants with lower Global Warming Potential (GWP).
  • Investigate long-term operational reliability and maintenance requirements under continuous commercial operation.
  • Perform comprehensive life-cycle cost and economic feasibility analyses comparing air-cooled and water-cooled refrigeration systems.
  • Optimize condenser geometry, heat exchanger configuration, and water circulation strategies to maximize thermal performance.
  • Develop intelligent control algorithms capable of automatically switching between condenser operating modes based on ambient conditions and cooling demand.
  • Integrate renewable energy sources, such as photovoltaic systems, with water-cooled refrigeration technologies to further reduce electricity consumption.
  • Investigate the application of waste heat recovery for domestic hot water, industrial process heating, and district energy systems.
  • Develop digital twin models that combine experimental measurements with real-time monitoring for predictive maintenance and energy optimization.
  • Assess refrigeration system performance under different climatic conditions, including subtropical, temperate, and arid environments.
  • Explore artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques for adaptive refrigeration system optimization based on operational data.

10. Potential for Public Policy Citation (Overton)

This study demonstrates meaningful potential to inform evidence-based policy discussions related to energy efficiency and sustainable cooling technologies. Although the research is primarily experimental rather than regulatory, its findings provide practical engineering evidence that could support future technical guidelines and energy conservation initiatives.

  • Energy efficiency policies. The demonstrated improvement in overall refrigeration efficiency supports government programs encouraging the adoption of energy-saving cooling technologies.
  • Sustainable building standards. The findings may contribute to technical recommendations for green building certification and energy-efficient building services, particularly where simultaneous cooling and hot water demand exists.
  • Industrial energy management. The study offers experimental evidence that may assist industrial roadmaps promoting waste heat recovery and improved thermal system performance.
  • Climate change mitigation strategies. By reducing electricity demand, higher-efficiency refrigeration systems can indirectly contribute to greenhouse gas emission reduction initiatives incorporated into national climate policies.
  • Engineering standards. The comprehensive evaluation using Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) may stimulate future discussions regarding broader performance assessment methodologies for refrigeration systems beyond conventional COP evaluation.

Although the article is unlikely to be cited directly in high-level legislative documents, it possesses strong potential to support technical reports, engineering guidelines, sustainable cooling roadmaps, university reference materials, and policy-oriented publications concerning energy-efficient refrigeration technologies.

11. Who Should Read This Paper?

  • Mechanical engineering researchers specializing in thermal systems and refrigeration engineering.
  • Graduate students studying thermodynamics, heat transfer, HVAC, and energy engineering.
  • HVAC engineers involved in refrigeration system design and optimization.
  • Building services engineers seeking more energy-efficient cooling technologies.
  • Industrial practitioners responsible for refrigeration system operation and maintenance.
  • Manufacturing engineers developing sustainable thermal management systems.
  • Energy managers responsible for reducing electricity consumption in commercial facilities.
  • Researchers working on waste heat recovery and integrated energy systems.
  • Policymakers interested in sustainable cooling technologies and energy conservation.
  • Educators teaching refrigeration, thermodynamics, and sustainable engineering courses.

12. Final Thoughts

This study provides a well-structured experimental comparison of air-cooled and water-cooled condensers in a vapor compression refrigeration system while extending conventional refrigeration performance evaluation through a broader consideration of total electrical energy consumption. Rather than relying solely on the traditional Coefficient of Performance, the authors demonstrate that incorporating auxiliary electrical loads into the Energy Efficiency Ratio offers a more realistic representation of actual system efficiency under practical operating conditions.

The experimental results consistently indicate that the water-cooled condenser improves heat rejection, reduces compressor workload, increases cooling capacity, and substantially enhances overall energy efficiency. Equally important, the research illustrates the additional benefit of recovering useful thermal energy for water heating, thereby transforming condenser waste heat into a valuable energy resource. This integrated approach aligns well with contemporary engineering objectives emphasizing resource efficiency, sustainable energy utilization, and reduced environmental impact.

Although further investigations involving alternative refrigerants, larger-scale systems, economic analyses, and long-term operational performance remain necessary, the present work offers valuable experimental evidence supporting the wider adoption of water-cooled condenser technologies in tropical climates. Overall, the article represents a meaningful contribution to refrigeration engineering by combining sound thermodynamic analysis with practical engineering relevance, providing useful guidance for researchers, practicing engineers, and organizations seeking more energy-efficient cooling solutions.

Suggested Citation

Teknomekanik (UNP) Style

Setiyo M., Rusdjijati R., Habibi I., Rochman M.L., Purnomo B.C., Pertiwi F.D., Waluyo B., Ismail R., and Kolakoti A. Vapor compression refrigeration system with air and water cooled condenser: Analysis of thermodynamic behavior and energy efficiency ratio. Teknomekanik. 2024;7(2):112–125. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v7i2.31972

APA (7th Edition)

Setiyo, M., Rusdjijati, R., Habibi, I., Rochman, M. L., Purnomo, B. C., Pertiwi, F. D., Waluyo, B., Ismail, R., & Kolakoti, A. (2024). Vapor compression refrigeration system with air and water cooled condenser: Analysis of thermodynamic behavior and energy efficiency ratio. Teknomekanik, 7(2), 112–125. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v7i2.31972

IEEE Style

M. Setiyo, R. Rusdjijati, I. Habibi, M. L. Rochman, B. C. Purnomo, F. D. Pertiwi, B. Waluyo, R. Ismail, and A. Kolakoti, "Vapor compression refrigeration system with air and water cooled condenser: Analysis of thermodynamic behavior and energy efficiency ratio," Teknomekanik, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 112–125, 2024, doi:10.24036/teknomekanik.v7i2.31972.

Harvard Style

Setiyo, M., Rusdjijati, R., Habibi, I., Rochman, M.L., Purnomo, B.C., Pertiwi, F.D., Waluyo, B., Ismail, R. & Kolakoti, A., 2024. Vapor compression refrigeration system with air and water cooled condenser: Analysis of thermodynamic behavior and energy efficiency ratio. Teknomekanik, 7(2), pp.112–125. Available at: https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v7i2.31972

Vancouver Style

Setiyo M, Rusdjijati R, Habibi I, Rochman ML, Purnomo BC, Pertiwi FD, Waluyo B, Ismail R, Kolakoti A. Vapor compression refrigeration system with air and water cooled condenser: Analysis of thermodynamic behavior and energy efficiency ratio. Teknomekanik. 2024;7(2):112-125. doi:10.24036/teknomekanik.v7i2.31972.

Chicago (Author–Date)

Setiyo, Muji, Retno Rusdjijati, Ilham Habibi, Muhamad Latifur Rochman, Bagiyo Condro Purnomo, Fungky Dyan Pertiwi, Budi Waluyo, Rifky Ismail, and Aditya Kolakoti. 2024. "Vapor Compression Refrigeration System with Air and Water Cooled Condenser: Analysis of Thermodynamic Behavior and Energy Efficiency Ratio." Teknomekanik 7 (2): 112–125. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v7i2.31972.

MLA (9th Edition)

Setiyo, Muji, et al. "Vapor Compression Refrigeration System with Air and Water Cooled Condenser: Analysis of Thermodynamic Behavior and Energy Efficiency Ratio." Teknomekanik, vol. 7, no. 2, 2024, pp. 112–125. https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v7i2.31972.

Editorial Note

Editorial Note

This blog post is an independent scholarly review intended for educational and scientific communication purposes. It summarizes and discusses the published article in the author's own words while providing full attribution to the original publication, consistent with the principles of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license. The review is based exclusively on the published article and does not reproduce the original text. All interpretations, explanations, and discussions are presented objectively to facilitate broader scientific understanding among researchers, engineers, students, industry practitioners, and policymakers.

Comments

Post a Comment